Grammar

Present Perfect Tense

Present Perfect Tense
I have sung
The present perfect tense is a rather important tense in English, but i t gives speakers of some languages
a difficult time. That is because i t uses concepts or ideas that do not exist in those languages. In fact,
the structure of the present perfect tense is very simple. The problems come with the use of the tense.
In addition, there are some differences in usage between British and American English.
In this lesson we look at the structure and use of the present perfect, foll owed by a quiz to check your
understanding:
· Structure: how to make the present perfect tense
· Use: when and why to use the present perfect tense
· For and Since with the present perfect tense. What's the difference?
· Present Perfect Quiz
The present perfect tense is really a very
interesting tense, and a very useful one. Try
not to translate the present perfect tense into
your language. Just try to accept the concepts
of this tense and learn to "think" present
perfect! You will soon l earn to like the
present perfect tense!
How do we make the Present Perfect Tense?
The structure of the present perfect tense is:
subject + auxiliary verb + main verb
have    past participle
Here are some examples of the present perfect tense:
subject auxiliary verb    main verb
+
I have seen ET.
+ You have eaten mine.
-She has not been to Rome.
- We have not played football.
? Have you finished?
? Have they done it ?
Contractions with the present perfect tense
When we use the present perfect tense in speaking, we usually contract the subject and auxiliary verb.
We also somet imes do this when we wri te.
I have I've
You have You'v e
He has
She has
It has
John has
The car has
He's
She' s
It' s
John's
The car's
We have We've
They have They've
Here are some examples:
· I've finished my work.
· John's seen ET.
· They've gone home.
How do we use the Present Perfect Tense?
This tense is called the present perfect tense. There i s always a connect i on with the past and wi th the
present. There are basically three uses for the present perfect tense:
1. experience
2. change
3. continuing situation
1. Present perfect tense for experience
We of ten use the present perfect tense to talk about experience from the past. We are not interested in
when you did something. We only want to know if you did it:
I have seen ET.
He's or he's??? Be careful! The 's
contraction is used for the auxiliary verbs
have and be. For example, "It' s eaten" can
mean:
· It has eaten. [present perfect tense,
active voice]
· It is eaten. [present tense, passive
voice]
It i s usually clear from the context.
He has lived in Bangkok.
Have you been there?
We have never eaten caviar.
past present future
!!!
The action or state was in the
past.
In my head, I have a memory
now.
Connection with past: the event was in the past.
Connection with present: in my head, now, I have a memory of the event; I know something about
the event; I have experience of   i t.
2. Present perfect tense for change
We also use the present perfect tense to talk about a change or new information:
I have bought a car.
past present future
- +
Last week I didn' t have a car. Now I have a car.
John has broken his leg.
past present future
+ -Yesterday John had a good l eg. Now he has a bad leg.
Has the price gone up?
past present future
+ -Was the price $1.50 yesterday? Is the price $1.70 today?
The police have arrested the killer.
past present future
- +
Yesterday the killer was free. Now he is in prison.
Connection with past: the past i s the opposite of the present.
Connection with present: the present i s the opposite of the past.
Americans do not use the present perfect
tense so much as British speakers. Americans
of ten use the past tense instead. An American
might say "Did you have lunch?", where a
British person would say "Have you had
lunch?"
3. Present perfect tense for continuing situation
We of ten use the present perfect tense to talk about a continuing situation. This i s a state that started
in the past and continues in the present (and will   probably continue into the future). This i s a state
(not an action). We usually use for or since with this structure.
I have worked here since June.
He has been ill for 2 days.
How long have you known Tara?
past present future
The situation started in the past. It continues up to now.
(It will probably continue into
the future.)
Connection with past: the situation started in the past.
Connection with present: the situation continues in the present.
For & Since with Present Perfect Tense
We of ten use for and since with the present perfect tense.
· We use for to talk about a period of time—5 minutes, 2 weeks, 6 years.
· We use since to talk about a point in past time—9 o'clock, 1st January, Monday.

for / since
a period of time a point in past time
x------------20 minutes 6.15pm
three days Monday
6 months January
4 years 1994
2 centuries 1800
a long time I lef t school
ever the beginning of time
etc etc
Here are some examples:
· I have been here for 20 minutes.
· I have been here since 9 o'clock.
· John hasn' t called for 6 months.
· John hasn' t called since February.
· He has worked in New York for a long time.
· He has worked in New York since he left school .
For can be used with all tenses. Since is
usually used with perfect tenses only.

Present Continuous Tense
I am singing
We of ten use the present continuous tense in English. It is very different from the simple present tense,
both in structure and in use.
In this lesson we look the structure and use of the present continuous tense, followed by a quiz to check
your understanding:
· Structure: how do we make the present continuous tense?
· Use: when and why do we use the present continuous tense?
· Spelling: how do we spell verbs with -ing for the present continuous tense?
· Present Continuous Tense Quiz
Continuous tenses are also called
progressive tenses. So the present
progressive tense is the same as the present
continuous tense.
How do we make the Present Continuous Tense?
The structure of the present continuous tense is:
subject + auxiliary verb + main verb
be    base + ing
Look at these examples:
subject auxiliary verb   main verb
+
I am    speaking to you.
+ You are    reading this.
-She is not staying in London.
- We are not playing football?
Is he    watching TV?
Are they waiting for John?
How do we use the Present Continuous Tense?
We use the present continuous tense to talk about:
· action happening now
· action in the future
Present continuous tense for action happening now
a) for action happening exactly now
I am eating my lunch.
past present future
The action is happening now.
Look at these examples. Right now you are looking at this screen and at the same time...
...the pages are turning. ...the candle is burning. ...the numbers are spinning.
b) for action happening around now
The action may not be happening exactly now, but it is happening just before and j ust af ter now, and i t
is not permanent or habitual .
John is going out with Mary.
past present future
The action is happening around now.
Look at these examples:
· Muriel is learning to drive.
· I am living with my sister until I find an apartment.
Present continuous tense for the future
We can also use the present continuous tense to talk about the future—if we add a future word!! We
must add (or understand from the context) a future word. "Future words" include, for example,
tomorrow, next year, in June, at Christmas etc. We only use the present continuous tense to talk
about the future when we have planned to do something before we speak. We have already made a
decision and a plan before speaking.
I am taking my exam next month.
past present future
!!!
A firm plan or programme exists
now.
The action is in the future.
Look at these examples:
· We're eating in a restaurant tonight. We've already booked the table..
· They can pl ay tennis with you tomorrow. They're not working.
· When are you starting your new job?
In these examples, we have a firm plan or programme before speaking. The decision and plan were
made before speaking.
How do we spell the Present Continuous Tense?
We make the present continuous tense by adding -ing to the base verb. Normally it's simple—we just
add -ing. But sometimes we have to change the word a little. Perhaps we double the last letter, or we
drop a letter. Here are the rules to help you know how to spell the present continuous tense.
Just add -ing to the base verb:
work > working
pl ay > playing
assist > assisting
see > seeing
Basic rule
be > being
Exception1
If the base verb ends in consonant + stressed vowel + consonant, double the last letter:
s t o p
consonant
stressed
vowel
consonant
(vowel s = a, e, i , o, u)
stop > stopping
run > running
begin > beginning
Note that this exception does not apply when the last syllable of the base verb is not
stressed:
open > opening
If the base verb ends in ie, change the ie to y:
lie > lying
Exception2
die > dying
If the base verb ends in vowel + consonant +e, omit the e:
come > coming
Exception3
mistake > mistaking

Simple Present Tense
I sing
How do we make the Simple Present Tense?
subject + auxiliary verb + main verb
do    base
There are three important exceptions:
1. For positive sentences, we do not normally use the auxiliary.
2. For the 3rd person singular (he, she, i t), we add s to the main verb or es to the auxiliary.
3. For the verb to be, we do not use an auxiliary, even for questions and negatives.
Look at these examples with the main verb like:
subject auxiliary verb    main verb
I, you, we, they      like coffee.
+
He, she, i t      likes coffee.
I, you, we, they do not like coffee.
-He, she, i t does not like coffee.
Do I, you, we, they    like coffee?
?
Does he, she, i t    like coffee?
Look at these examples with the main verb be. Notice that there i s no auxiliary:
subject main verb
I am    French.
You, we, they are    French. +
He, she, i t is    French.
I am not old.
You, we, they are not old. -He, she, i t is not old.
?
Am I    late?
Are you, we, they    late?
Is he, she, i t    late?
How do we use the Simple Present Tense?
We use the simple present tense when:
· the action is general
· the action happens all the time, or habitually, in the past, present and future
· the action is not only happening now
· the statement i s always true
John drives a taxi.
past present future
It i s John's j ob to drive a taxi . He does i t every day. Past, present and future.
Look at these examples:
· I live in New York.
· The Moon goes round the Earth.
· John drives a taxi .
· He does not drive a bus.
· We do not work at night.
· Do you pl ay football?
Note that with the verb to be, we can also use the simple present tense for situations that are not
general. We can use the simple present tense to talk about now. Look at these examples of the verb "to
be" in the simple present tense—some of them are general, some of them are now:
Am I right?
Tara is not at home.
You are happy.
past present future
The situation is now.
I am not fat.
Why are you so beautiful?
Ram is tall.
past present future
The situation is general . Past, present and future.
This pages hows the use of the simple present
tense to talk about general events. But note
that there are some other uses for the simple
present tense, for example in conditional or if
sentences, or to talk about the future. You
will   learn about those later.

Tenses
The English Tense System
The links below are to lessons for each of the 12 basic
tenses. In each lesson we look at two aspects of the
tense:
· Structure: How do we make the tense?
· Use: When and why do we use the tense?
Some lessons look at additional aspects, and most of
them finish with a quiz to check your understanding.
Present Tense
I do do, I do
Present Continuous Tense
I am doing, I am doing tomorrow
Present Perfect Tense
I have done
Present Perfect Continuous Tense
I have been doing
Past Tense
I did do, I did
Past Continuous Tense
I was doing
Past Perfect Tense
I had done
Past Perfect Continuous Tense
I had been doing
Future Tense
I will do
Future Continuous Tense
I will   be doing
Future Perfect Tense
I will   have done
Future Perfect Continuous Tense
I will   have been doing
Many English learners worry too much about
tense. If   you stopped 100 native English
speakers in the street and asked them about
tense, one of them might give you an
intelligent answer—if you were lucky. The
other 99 would know little about terms like
"past perfect" or "present continuous". And
they would know nothing about aspect, voice
or mood. But they can all speak fluent
English and communicate effectively. Of
course, for ESL it helps to know about
tenses, but don't become obsessed with them.
Be like those native speakers! Speak
naturally!

Check the souund of these words in the dictionary.
1. Breath/Breathe in deeply and then out again.
2. Suits were usually made of wool cloth/clothe.
3. I really loath/loathe the fashion of the 1980s.
4. The medicine soothes/sooths the pain of the inflammation.
5. The baby‟s teeth/teethe are coming through.
Homographs
Some examples of homographs:
to lead /lɪːd/    lead    /led/
to read /rɪːd/   read    /red/
to live    /lɪv/    live    /lɑɪv/
The sound may also change according to the where the stress is on the word:
to record /rɪˈkɔːd/ record    /ˈrekɔːd/
to present /prɪˈzent/ present /ˈpreznt/

-ed suffix
The morpheme -ed of the past tense (or past participle) is also pronounced in three
different ways depending on the preceding consonant:
ɪd     after t and d
painted    /peɪntɪd/ founded    /fɑʊndɪd/
wanted    /wɒntɪd/ rounded    /rɑʊndɪd/
t     after unvoiced consonants: /f/ /k/ /p/ /s/ tʃ   /ʃ
clapped    /klæpt/ brushed    /brʌʃt/
laughed /lɑːft/    wished    /wɪʃt/
d      in other cases
earned    /ɜːnd/    carried    /kær ɪd/
changed /tʃeɪndʒd/ harmed    /hɑːmd/
13
Exercise 17 Pronounce the past form of these regular verbs paying attention to the –ed
suffix.
1. study _____
2. judge _____
3. listen _____
4. miss _____
5. work _____
6. answer _____
7. test _____
8. invent _____
9. research _____
10. enjoy _____

Suffixes
-s suffix
The morpheme -s of the 3rd person singular   (he works), of the noun plural (books), of
the genitive (John‟s) and of the contraction of is or has (he‟s) is pronounced in three
different ways depending on the sound of the preceding consonant:
ɪz   after sibilant consonants: s   ʃ   tʃ   dʒ
slices    /slɑɪsɪz/    brushes /brʌʃɪz/
churches /tʃɜːtʃɪz/     wages    /weɪdʒɪz/
s     after unvoiced consonants: /f/ /k/ /p/ /t/
packs    /pæks/    rates    /reɪts/
laughs    /lɑːfs/    taps    /tæps/
12
z     in other cases
boys    /bɔɪz/    girls    /gɜːlz/
clothes    /kləʊðz/     John‟s    /dʒɒnz/
Some unvoiced sounds, θ and f , become voiced when the -s suffix is added.
Compare:
bath    /bɑːθ/ baths      /bɑːðz/
knife    /nɑɪf/    knives      /nɑɪvz/
Exercise 16 Write the sound /s/, /z/ or /ɪz/ next to the following words.
1. judges    _____
2. lives    _____
3. plates    _____
4. classes    _____
5. breathes    _____
6. watches    _____
7. attends    _____
8. tapes    _____
9. books    _____
10. wives    _____

Exercise 15 Circle the word that is pronounced differently from the other three words.
1. accident    access      accommodate    accept
2. sheep    beer      field        people
3. angry    jungle      English      spring
4. shout    now      round       mould
5. cheese    chip      machine      attach
6. signature   foreign    Gnostic      tongue
7. suit    fruit      cruise       biscuit
8. though    rough     enough      tough
9. floor    poor      flood        door
10. author    caught    laughter      daughter

UNIT 2 ENGLISH SPELLING AND SOUNDS
English spelling is a particular obstacle to non-native speakers. This is due to the fact
that during the course of its history it has been influenced by numerous languages,
especially by German, Latin, French and the Scandinavian languages. Thus, for example,
the sound /ʃ/ is to be found in the following letter combinations: shut, champagne,
nation, expansion, conscience, issue, and sugar.
Sometimes words do not sound alike despite their similar spellings (homographs): bow -/bəʊ/ and /bɑʊ/, close - /kləʊz/ and /kləʊs/, live - /lɪv/ and /lɑɪv/. Other words sound
alike, but are spelled differently (homophones): aren‟t / aunt - /ɑːnt/, bare / bear -/beə/, and seen / scene - /sɪːn/.
10
It was already noted over 400 years ago that English used more letters than necessary to
spell many of its words, and during the 17th century numerous redundant letters were
removed, the emergent standard spellings tending to prefer one of the shorter forms
among the alternatives previously in use. For example, in the 16th century the word bit
was sometimes spelt byte. Many words were reduced like byte by the loss of a silent final
-E, the replacement of Y by I, and the simplification of doubled consonants. But many
other words have kept unnecessary letters, for instance the B in debt , the E in have or the
P in receipt.
After the 17th century this process of simplification of English spelling slowed down,
thanks to the standardizing influence of printing and the spread of dictionaries. The
American lexicographer Noah Webster took the process of simplification a step further in
the early 19th century, and Americans today use some distinctive spellings of the type his
dictionary recommended, such as center, traveling, favor, defense, realize (Br.Eng. centre,
travelling, favour, defence, realise).
Difficult vowel combinations Practice saying the following words
u: /ʌ/ - bun, /ʊ/ - put, /ɪ/ - busy, /e/ - bury, /uː/ - rude, /juː/ - huge, /ə/ -focus, /ɜː/ - burn.
ea: /ɪː/ - beach, /e/ - bread, /eɪ/ - break, /eə/ - bear, /ɪə/ - dear.
au: /ɑː/ - aunt, /ɔː/ - author, /ɒ/ - because, /eɪ/ - gauge.
oo: /uː/ - too, /ʊ/ - look, /ʌ/ - flood, /əʊ/ - brooch, /ɔː/ - floor.
ei: /eɪ/ - eight, /ɪː/ - receive, /ɪ/ - counterfeit, /e/ - leisure, /ɑɪ/ - height
ui: /uː/ - fruit, /ɪ/ - build, /wɪː/ - suite, /ɑɪ/ - guide.
ou: /ɑʊ/ - out, /əʊ/ - soul, /ʌ/ - touch, /ʊ/ - could, /uː/ - you, /ɔː/ - pour.
oa: /əʊ/ - road, /ɔː/ - broad.
ow: /ɑʊ/ - now, /əʊ/ - know, /ɒ/ - knowledge.
ough: /əʊ/ - though, /uː/ - through, /ɔː/ - bought, /ɑʊ/ - drought, /ə/ - borough,
/ɒf/ - cough, /ʌf/ - enough.
augh: /ɔː/ - taught, /ɑːf/ - laugh.
11
Difficult consonant combinations Practice saying the following words
ch: /k/ - character, /tʃ/ - choice, /ʃ/ - chef, /Ǿ/ - yacht.
cc: /ks/ - success, /k/ - account, /tʃ/ - cappuccino.
gn: /n/ - sign, /gn/ - recognise.
ng: /ŋ/ - sing, /ŋg/ - finger, /ndʒ/ - danger.

LEARNING ORAL ENGLISH

/s/
Apart from the letter „S‟, the /s/ sound can be represented by a number of consonant
combinations, which differ in pronunciation from the Italian: psyche, cellar, science,
listen.
Exercise 13 Tick the words that contain the /s/ sound.
1. song    5. face    9. issue    13. disciple
2. Islam    6. city    10. months    14. sugar
3. vision    7. message    11. castle    15. mix
4. science    8. houses    12. fascism    16. psychology
9
Exercise 14 Underline the word that the transcription represents.
1. bɔːn    burn    born
2. θɪŋ    thing    thin
3. fɪːlɪŋz    fillings feelings
4. vɑɪn    vine    wine
5. meɪdʒə    major    mayor
6. ræm    rum    ram
7. wɜːd    word    worried
8. fəget    forget    forged
9. ɑɪs      eyes    ice
10. huːz    whose    house
Tongue Twisters Quickly say the following sentences.
1. She sells sea shells on the sea shore.
2. Thirty-three thrilling thespians thought throughout Thursday.
3. I wish to wash my Irish wristwatch.
4. In Hertford, Hereford and Hampshire, hurricanes hardly ever happen.
5. A skunk sat on a stump.

/w/This sound tends to be pronounced by Italian speakers as /v/.
Exercise 10   The teacher will read out the following sentences. Underline the alternative
that you hear.
1. There was only a little vine / wine left.
2. Where is the vest / west?
3. I saw a long whale / veil in the distance.
4. What was under the wheel / veal?
5. Her poetry has become worse / verse.
8
/dʒ/
When written with a „J‟, Italian speakers tend to pronounce this sound as /j/. The letter
„G‟ can also produce this sound: general, storage, as can the combination
–dge and –age: edge, storage.
Exercise 11 Tick the words that contain the /dʒ/ sound.
1. gin      5. yam    9. jet      13. damage
2. large      6. soldier    10. gear      14. mayor
3. goat      7. guilty      11. just      15. collage
4. injury      8. gum      12. get      16. college
/h/
This sound tends to be omitted by Italian speakers. However, the h is not pronounced in
such words as hour, honour, heir and honest, in some words and place names: exhibit,
Totten(h)am, or in rapid speech: Tell (h)im we‟ll be late.
Exercise 12 The teacher will read out sentences. Tick the word that you hear.
1. ill      hill
2. eye    high
3. art      heart
4. air      hair
5. ear      hear
6. old      hold
7. heir    hair
8. all      hall
9. eight    hate
10. edge    hedge

Grammar

Present Perfect Tense

Present Continuous Tense

Simple Present Tense

Exercise 18

ENGLISH SPELLING AND SOUNDS

LEARNING ORAL ENGLISH

Oral English

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