Introductory it: exercise

It can be used in ‘cleft sentences’ with who- and that-clauses to emphasize one part of a sentence.
Study the following sentence.

My mother took John to the theater yesterday.
It was my mother who took John to the theater yesterday. (Emphasis on ‘my mother’)
It was John that my mother took to the theater yesterday. (Emphasis on ‘Peter’)

Rewrite the following sentences using it.
1. John threw the book into the fire.
2. Susie met James at the railway station.
3. Susie liked the design on the door very much.
4. My father bought me a toy car yesterday.
5. The manager dismissed the dishonest cashier.
6. John worries about his Dad’s health.
7. John talked to the Manager.
8. The police arrested the suspects.
Answers
1. It was John who threw the book into the fire. / It was the book that John threw into the fire.
2. It was Susie who met James at the station. / It was James that Susie met at the station.
3. It was Susie who liked the design on the door very much. / It was the design on the door that Susie liked very much.
4. It was my father who bought me a toy car yesterday. / It was a toy car that my father bought me yesterday.
5. It was the manager who dismissed the dishonest cashier. / It was the dishonest cashier that the manager dismissed.
6. It is John who worries about his Dad’s health. / It is his Dad’s health that worries John.
7. It was John who talked to the manager. / It was the manager that John talked to.
8. It was the police who arrested the suspects. / It was the suspects that the police arrested.

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Position of subordinate clauses

A subordinating conjunction and its clause can go either before or after the main clause (depending on what is to be emphasized).

If you need money, just let me know.
Just let me know if you need money.

Although the necklace was expensive, she bought it.
She bought the necklace although it was expensive.

Because she was too angry, she tore up the letter.
She tore up the letter because she was too angry.

I went to work after I sent the kids to school.
After I sent the kids to school, I went to work.

When a subordinate clause begins a sentence, it is often separated by a comma, even if it is short.
Conjunctions in separate sentences
Normally a conjunction connects two clauses into one sentence. However, sometimes, a conjunction and its clause can stand alone. This usually happens in answers.

‘Why are you crying?’ ‘Because John hit me.’
‘When are you going to start?’ ‘When I am ready.’
‘Why did you buy it?’ ‘Because I liked it.’
‘Why are you leaving?’ ‘Because I’m fed up.’

Writers often separate clauses for emphasis. However, you must not overdo this.

Something has to be done. Before it gets too late. (Instead of ‘Something has to be done before it gets too late.’)

Afterthoughts can also be introduced by conjunctions.

OK, I did it – But I didn’t mean to.

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Expressions without prepositions

Some common expressions are used without prepositions.
Verbs without prepositions
Some verbs are normally followed by direct objects without prepositions. Examples are: enter, discuss, marry, lack, resemble, approach etc.

We entered the compound. (NOT We entered into the compound.)
Let’s discuss your plans. (NOT Let’s discuss about your plans.)
She lacks tact. (NOT She lacks in tact.)
The baby resembles its mother. (NOT The baby resembles to its mother.)

Expressions of time
A number of expressions of time beginning next, last, this, that, one, every, each, some and any are used without prepositions.

See you next Sunday. (NOT See you on next Sunday.)
I will never forget meeting him that evening. (NOT I will never forget meeting him in that evening.)
Buses leave every ten minutes. (NOT Buses leave in every ten minutes.)

In an informal style, prepositions can be dropped in infinitive structures.

I have no money to buy food. OR I have no money to buy food with.
I have no place to go. OR I have no place to go to.
We need a house to live. OR We need a house to live in.

Prepositions are also dropped before what time.

What time does the train arrive? (More natural than ‘At what time does the train arrive?’)

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Grammar terms with M

Main clause
A clause which is capable of making a complete sentence by itself. A sentence must have at least one main clause. A simple sentence consists of only a single main clause. Example: John wrote a letter. In a compound sentence, there are two main clauses connected by and. Susie cooked dinner and Jane washed the clothes.
Malapropism
The use of a wrong word, often especially when another word of similar sound is intended.
Manner adverb
An adverb that answers the question ‘how?’ Examples are: slowly, carefully, rashly, kindly, furiously etc.
Mass noun
A noun which denotes something which cannot be counted. Examples are: wheat, sand, milk, rice etc. A mass noun cannot be used with numbers and it does not have a plural form.
Matrix clause
A clause which contains a subordinate clause within it. In the sentence ‘The girl who won the first prize is my cousin’, the matrix clause is ‘The girl … is my cousin’, while the remainder is the subordinate clause.
Mood
The label mood refers to the degree or kind of reality assigned by the speaker to what she is saying. English has four or five moods: indicative, subjunctive, imperative, optative and interrogative.
Morpheme
A morpheme is the smallest unit of word structure. For example, dog consists of a single morpheme (dog) while happiness consists of two morphemes (happy) and (ness). A particular morpheme may have different forms which are called its allomorphs.

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Uses of that

That can be used as an adjective and a pronoun. It is the singular form of those.
Compare:

Look at that man over there.
Look at those men over there.

As an adjective that can refer to either people or things.

This photograph is much better than that photograph.
That boy says that he is tired.

When that is used as a pronoun without a noun, it can only refer to things.
Compare:

Look at that photograph. OR Look at that.
Ask that man to come here. BUT NOT Ask that to come here.

However, that can be used as a pronoun when we are identifying people.

Who’s that?
Is that Ruth?

In a colloquial style, that can be used as an adverb.

I couldn’t walk that far. (= I couldn’t walk as far as that.)

Relative pronoun
That can be used as a relative pronoun. As a relative pronoun, that can refer to both people and things.

The letter that came this morning is from my brother.
Give help to anyone that needs it.

That as a conjunction
That can also be used as a conjunction.

His manners are so bad that nobody invites him to a party.
Bring it to the light so that I can see it better.
You may borrow my car on condition that you bring it before 10 pm.

That can also be used in exclamations.

Oh, that I could see you again! (= How I wish it were possible for us to meet again!)

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Shall and will exercise

Fill in the blanks using will or shall.
1. ……………………… the messenger wait for the reply?
2. …………………….. I carry this bag for you?
3. He …………………………. be talking all the time without doing anything.
4. This machine …………………….. work well without giving you any trouble.
5. ……………………….. you give me your dictionary?
6. ……………………… you be kind enough to lend me your car?
7. On receipt of this letter you ……………………….. leave for Mumbai at once.
8. …………………………… you come with me?
9. Tell him that he ……………………… never repeat that mistake.
10. ………………………….. I put the heating on?
Answers
1. Shall the messenger wait for the reply?
2. Shall I carry this bag for you?
3. He will be talking all the time without doing anything.
4. This machine will work well without giving you any trouble.
5. Will you give me your dictionary?
6. Will you be kind enough to lend me your car?
7. On receipt of this letter you shall leave for Mumbai at once.
8. Will you come with me?
9. Tell him that he shall never repeat that mistake.
10. Shall I put the heating on?

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The qualifying infinitive

The qualifying infinitive may be used:
1) to qualify a noun like an adjective

Give me something to drink.
Give me a chair to sit.
It was a sight to see.
This is a thing to admire.

2) to qualify a verb like an adverb

I came to see you.
We are going to play the match.
It is going to rain.

3) to qualify an adjective like an adverb

The book is nice to read.
This picture is beautiful to look at.

4) to qualify a sentence

To tell the truth, you are a fool.
To be frank, I don’t like him.

When the infinitive is used to qualify a noun, verb or adjective, it is called a qualifying infinitive or gerundial infinitive.
Adjectives / adverbs and the qualifying infinitives are compared below.

That was a beautiful sight. (Here the adjective beautiful qualifies the noun sight.)
That was a sight to see. (Here the infinitive to see qualifies the noun sight.)
He came quickly. (Here the adverb quickly modifies the verb came.)
He came to see us. (Here the infinitive to see modifies the verb came.)
This kind of tea is very good. (Here the adverb very modifies the adjective good.)
This kind of tea is good to drink. (Here the infinitive to drink modifies the adjective good.)

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Uses of the participle – part II

Participles are also used in absolute phrases with a noun or pronoun going before them.

God willing, we shall meet again.
The fog having lifted, the plane took off.

Notes:

Each of these absolute phrases can be transformed into a subordinate clause.

If God is willing, we shall meet again.
When the fog had lifted, the plane took off.

A common error

As the participle is a verbal adjective it should have a proper subject of reference. If the subject is missing or a wrong subject is used the whole sentence will be wrong.

The following sentences are wrong because the participle has no proper subject.

Standing at the gate, a scorpion stung him. (This sentence means that it was the scorpion that was standing at the gate.)
Going up the hill, an old temple was seen.

We should, therefore, rewrite these sentences as given below.

While he was standing at the gate, a scorpion stung him. OR Standing at the gate, he was stung by a scorpion.
When we went up the hill, we saw an old temple.

More examples are given below:

Incorrect: Being a rainy day, we did not go out.
Correct: It being a rainy day, we did not go out.

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Singular and plural nouns

The label number refers to the grammatical category which relates to the number of countable objects in the world. In English, number is important with nouns. An English noun exhibits a two-way distinction of number: a singular form and a plural form.

The singular form denotes one of something. Examples are: tree, cat, flower, girl, boy etc.

The plural form denotes two or more of something. Examples are: trees, cats, flowers, girls, boys etc.

In English, a singular noun usually has no marking while the plural form carries the suffix -s or -es.

Cat / cats
Dog / dogs
Fox / foxes
Fruit / fruits

A few dozen nouns form their plurals irregularly. Examples are:

Child / children
Man / men
Woman / women
Foot / feet
Tooth / teeth
Mouse / mice

Nouns with only a singular form or only a plural form

Some nouns have only a singular form or only a plural form. Nouns which have only a singular form include the following: furniture, wheat, happiness, scenery, news, information, luggage, bread, advice etc.

Nouns which have only a plural form include the following: police, cattle, oats, tweezers, pants, remains etc.

Nouns with identical singular and plural forms

A few nouns in English have identical singular and plural forms. An example is sheep.

The sheep is hungry. (Sheep – singular)
The sheep are hungry. (Sheep – plural)

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Verbs not used in progressive forms

Some verbs are not used in progressive forms.

I love you. (NOT I am loving you.)
I like this color. (NOT I am liking this color.)
I rang her up because I wanted to speak. (NOT I rang her up because I was wanting to speak.)

Many of these non-progressive verbs refer to states rather than actions.

Common non-progressive verbs

Here is a list of some common verbs which are not often used in progressive forms.

Believe, doubt, feel, imagine, know, dislike, love, hate, prefer, realize, recognize, remember, see, suppose, think, understand, want, wish, appear, hear, look, see, seem, smell, sound, taste, agree, deny, astonish, disagree, impress, mean, please, promise, satisfy, surprise, belong, concern, consist, depend, fit, involve, lack, matter, need, owe, own, possess, weigh etc.

Notes

Feel does not have a progressive form when it means ‘have an opinion’.

I feel you are making a mistake. (NOT I am feeling you are making a mistake.)

See does not have a progressive form when it means ‘understand’.

I see what you mean. (NOT I am seeing what you mean.)

Look does not have a progressive form when it means ‘seem’.

She looks like she is rich. (NOT She is looking like she is rich.)

Weigh does not have a progressive form when it means ‘have weight’.

He weighs 70 kilos. (NOT He is weighing 70 kilos.)

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More about noun clauses – part 2

A noun clause can be used in apposition to a noun or a pronoun. Study the following sentences.

Your statement that you didn’t take the money can’t be believed.
His belief that someday he would succeed cheered him through his failures.
The news that he is alive made us happy.
The belief that the soul is immortal is almost universal.

Noun clause as the complement of a verb of incomplete predication

In each of the following sentences the noun clause is used as the complement of a verb of incomplete predication.

My belief is that he will come.
It seems that he will top the list of successful candidates.

How to construct a sentence having a noun clause?

Making a sentence having a noun clause is very easy. One way is to begin a sentence like this:

He said that…

Whatever clause you put after ‘that’ will automatically become a noun clause.

He said that he would come.
He said that he would wait.
He said that he was not interested in the offer.

Instead of ‘said’ you can use any of the following verbs:

Know, believe, think, realize, feel, hope, understand, wish, see, notice, find, discover, note, hear, listen, tell, ask, request, explain, suggest, reply etc.

She suggested that I should consult a doctor.
I realized that I had made a mistake.
I believe that the soul is immortal.
I discovered that the boy was missing.

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Articles with countable and uncountable nouns

Countable nouns are the names of separate people or objects which we can count. Uncountable nouns are the names of materials, liquids and other things which we do not see as separate objects.

We can use the indefinite article (a/an) with singular countable nouns. A plural countable noun cannot be used with indefinite articles. Countable nouns (both singular and plural) can also be used with numbers.

A cat
Two cats
A boy
Two boys

We cannot use the indefinite article or numbers with uncountable nouns.

Water (NOT a water) (NOT two waters)
Weather (NOT a weather) (NOT two weathers)

A singular countable noun usually has an article or other determiner with it. We say, the cat, my cat or this cat, but not justcat. Plural and uncountable nouns can be used with or without an article or other determiner.

Exceptions

Many nouns which are normally uncountable are treated as countable in some cases.

Have you got a good shampoo? (Although shampoo is an uncountable noun, it is treated as countable to express the meaning of ‘a type of’.)
Three coffees, please. (= three cups of coffees)

Some nouns that are countable in other languages are uncountable in English. Examples are: information, advice, news, scenery, accommodation etc.

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Figures of speech – Simile and Metaphor

A figure of speech is a departure from the ordinary form of expression. It is employed to produce a greater effect.

There are four different kinds of figures of speech.

1. Those based on resemblance

Examples are: simile, metaphor, personification and apostrophe

2. Those based on contrast

Examples are: antithesis and epigram

3. Those based on association

Examples are: metonymy and synecdoche

4. Those depending on the construction of the plot

Examples are: climax and anticlimax

Simile

In a simile we make a comparison between two objects of different kinds. These two objects will have at least one point in common.

The righteous shall flourish as the palm tree. (Here a comparison is made between the righteous and the palm tree.)

Life is as tedious as a twice-told tale.

O my Love’s like a red, red rose
That’s newly sprung in June;
O my Love’s like a melodie
That’s sweetly played in tune.

Here are some similes common in everyday speech.

as proud as a peacock

as cool as a cucumber

as hard as nails

as good as gold

as old as the hills

as clear as crystal

Note

A comparison of two things of the same kind is not a simile.

Metaphor

A metaphor is an implied simile. It doesn’t state that one thing is like another or acts as another. Instead it says that the two things are one and the same. A simile, on the other hand, says that one thing is like another.

Thus, when we say, ‘She is like an angel’ we use a simile, but when we say ‘She is an angel’, we use a metaphor.

Examples are:

Life is a dream. (Metaphor)

Life is like a dream. (Simile)

The camel is the ship of the desert. (Metaphor)

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Figures of Speech – Part II

We have seen that a metaphor is an implied simile. Every simile can be compressed into a metaphor and every metaphor can be expanded into a simile.

Compare:

Life is like a dream. (Simile)
Life is a dream. (Metaphor)

Personification

In personification inanimate objects and abstract ideas are spoken of as if they have life and intelligence.

Example

Pride goeth forth on horseback, grand and gay’
But cometh back on foot, and begs its way.

Apostrophe

An apostrophe is a direct address to the dead, the absent or a personified object or idea. It is a special form of personification.

Milton! thou should’st be living at this hour.

Roll on, thou deep and dark blue Ocean – roll!

O death! where is thy sting? O grave! where is thy victory?

O Solitude! where are the charms

That sages have seen in thy face?

Hyperbole

In hyperbole a statement is made emphatic by overstatement.

Here’s the smell of blood still; all the perfumes of Arabia will not sweeten this little hand.

O Hamlet! thou has cleft my heart in twain.

I Loved Ophelia; forty thousand brothers
Could not with all their quantity of love
Make up the sum.

Euphemism

In Euphemism, a disagreeable thing is described by an agreeable name.

For example, we often say ‘He has fallen asleep’ or ‘He has passed away’ instead of ‘He has died.’

Other examples are given below:

Old Sam is pushing up the daisies. (= Old Sam is dead.)

He is a little careless of the truth. (= He is a liar.)

She has become hard of hearing lately. (= She has become deaf.)

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Figures of Speech – Part III

Antithesis
In antithesis, a striking contrast of words or sentiments is expressed in the same sentence. It is employed to secure emphasis.

Examples are given below:

Man proposes, God disposes.
Not that I loved Caesar less, but that I loved Rome more.

Oxymoron

Oxymoron is a special form of antithesis. Here two contradictory qualities of the same thing are predicted at once.

So innocent arch, so cunningly simple.
She accepted it as the kind cruelty of the surgeon’s knife.

Epigram

An epigram is a brief pointed saying. It is used to introduce ideas which invoke surprise.

The child is the father of the man.
Fools rush in angels fear to tread.

Here lies our Sovereign Lord the King
Whose word no man relies on,
Who never said a foolish thing
And never did a wise one.

Art lies in concealing art.

Irony

Irony is a mode of speech in which the real meaning is exactly the opposite of that which is literally conveyed.

Here under leave of Brutus and the rest
(For Brutus is an honorable man:
So are they all, all honorable men)
Come I speak in Caesar’s funeral.
He was my friend, faithful and just to me;
But Brutus says he was ambitious’
And Brutus is an honorable man.

Pun

A pun is employed to produce a ludicrous effect. It consists in the use of a word in such a way that it is capable of more than one application.

An ambassador is an honest man who lies abroad for the good of his country.
Is life worth living? – It depends upon the liver?

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Figure of Speech Part III

Metonymy

Metonymy literally means a change of name. In metonymy an object is denoted by the name of something which is generally associated with it.

For example

The Bench, for the judges
The laurel, for success
Bluejackets, for sailors
Red-coats, for British sailors
The Crown, for the king

Since there are different kinds of association between objects, there are
several varieties of metonymy. For example, a metonymy may result from the use of the sign for the person or thing symbolized.

From the cradle to the grave (= from infancy to death)

Lilotes
In Lilotes an affirmative is conveyed by negation of the opposite. It is the
opposite of hyperbole.

I am a citizen of no mean city. (= I am a citizen of a very celebrated
city.)
He is no fool. (= He is very clever.)

Exclamation
In this figure of speech, the exclamatory form is used to draw greater
attention to a point.

What a piece of work is man!
How sweet the moonlight sleeps upon this bank!

Climax
Climax is the arrangement of a series of events or ideas in the order of
increasing importance.

What a piece of work is man! How noble in reason, how infinite in faculties! In action, how like an angel! In apprehension, how like a God.

Anticlimax
Anticlimax is the opposite of climax. It shows a sudden descent from the
higher to the lower. The anticlimax is employed for the purpose of satire or
ridicule.

Here thou great Anna! whom three realms obey,
Dost sometimes counsel take – and sometimes tea.

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Uses of the verb have

The verb have is used in a number of ways in English. It can be used as an auxiliary verb. It can also be used as an ordinary verb.
As an ordinary verb have indicates ideas such as possession of objects, individual characteristics, relationships etc.
Examples:

He has a brother in Germany.
She has long hair.
The baby has blue eyes.
I have two kids.

Notes
Have is used in the present tense when the subject is a plural noun or the pronouns I / you / they / we.
Has is used in the present tense when the subject is a singular noun or pronoun.
Had is used in the past tense with subjects of all numbers and persons.
Have and Have Got
Have got means the same as have in most cases. It can also be used to indicate possession of objects and similar ideas.
Examples:

She has got black hair.
I have got seven sisters.

Common expressions with have

The ordinary verb have is used in a number of common expressions.

have a bath, wash, shower, etc.
have breakfast, lunch, dinner
have fun
have a party
have a walk, hike, ride, etc.
have a discussion, fight, argument etc.

Examples:

We usually have dinner at 9 o’clock.
She is having a bath.
Let’s have fun.

Have as an Auxiliary Verb
As an auxiliary verb have is used in the formation of perfect tenses. Remember that the verb have will change its form depending on the number and person of the subject and the tense of the verb. Here is a quick review of the tenses that use have as an auxiliary verb.
Present Perfect:

They have come.
I have finished the work.
It has stopped raining.

Present Perfect Continuous:

We have been waiting for a long time.
It has been raining since yesterday.

Past Perfect:

The train had already left before we reached the station.

Past Perfect Continuous:

She had been working for two hours when he came.

Future Perfect:

I will have finished working by 6 o’clock.

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When to spell out numbers

Many writers have difficulty figuring out when to write numbers in words or figures. There are some general rules but these are not applicable in all contexts. The following guidelines should, nevertheless, help.
The numbers of Kings and Queens should be written in Roman characters.

Examples: Elizabeth II, Louis XIV

Ordinal numbers up to twelfth should be written in words except in dates.

He finished second. (NOT He finished 2nd.)
Who came first? (NOT Who came 1st?)

He was born on 3rd May. OR He was born on May 3rd. (BUT Not normally He was born on third May.)

Cardinal numbers up to 12 should be written in words, except when telling the time.

We need three chairs and one table.
He has three sisters.
The train leaves at 5 pm.

Cardinal and ordinal numbers above twelve and twelfth should be written in either figures or words as seems in each case more convenient.

There were 50 students in the class.

Technical writing, however, is different. In technical writing any numbers used with measurements of time or distance should be expressed in figures. Examples are: 5 years, 2 months, 6 inches etc.
There is some difficulty in defining the rules, but generally any number that represents a key value is written in figures. For example in the sentence, ‘This chipset is based on the 32nm technology’ the numeral is in order because the number 32 has a key value in the context. When the number is not very ‘important’ it can be written in words.
Even in technical writing, sentences shouldn’t begin with numerals. In such cases write the number out in words or rephrase the sentence so that the number doesn’t begin the sentence.
According to the Chicago Manual of Style, whole numbers from one through one hundred, round numbers and any number beginning a sentence should be spelled out. For other numbers, numerals are used.

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Personal pronouns

I, we, you, he, she, they and it are called personal pronouns because they stand for the three persons:

the person speaking
the person spoken to
the person spoken of

The pronouns I and we, which refer to the person or persons speaking are said to be the personal pronouns of the first person.

I am fed up.
We have to go.

The pronoun you, which refers to the person or persons spoken to, is said to be a personal pronoun of the second person. Note that you has the same form for the singular and plural. Both singular and plural you are followed by the plural verbs are and have.

You are my best friend.
You have betrayed my trust.

The pronouns he, she and they, which refer to the person or persons spoken of are said to be personal pronouns of the third person. It is also called a personal pronoun of the third person.
Personal pronouns have different forms:
The pronouns that are used as subjects of verbs are: I, he, she, they, you and we.
The personal pronouns that are used as objects of verbs are: me, him, her, them, you and us. Note that you does not change.
Personal pronouns in the possessive case has the following forms: mine, his, hers, theirs, yours and ours.
Note that the possessive pronouns shall not be confused with the possessive adjectives my, his, her, their, your and our. The possessive adjectives are used before nouns.
Compare:

This is my dog. (Here the possessive adjective my qualifies the noun dog.)
Those are their books. (Here the possessive adjective their qualifies the noun books.)
This dog is mine.
Those books are theirs.
This is my coat. Where is yours?

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Correct Use of Personal Pronouns

A personal pronoun must be of the same number, gender and person as the noun it stands for.
John is a good boy. He loves and respects his parents and teachers. (Here the pronoun he is of the same number, gender and person as the noun John.)
Alice is my sister. She lives abroad. (Here the pronoun she is of the same number, gender and person as the noun Alice.)
The students worked hard. Their teacher praised them. (Here the plural pronoun them is of the same number, gender and person as the plural noun students.)
A personal pronoun referring back to a collective noun must be in the singular number if the collective noun is viewed as a whole.
The jury has given its verdict.
The fleet will reach its destination in a week.
If the focus is on the individual members of the group, the pronoun should be in the plural number.
The jury were divided in their opinion.
When two or more singular nouns are joined by and, the pronoun used for them must be plural in number.
Both John and Peter played well. They were praised by the coach.
When two singular nouns joined by and refer to the same person, the pronoun must be singular in number.
The Secretary and Treasurer is negligent of his duty. (Here the nouns Secretary and Treasurer refer to the same person. Therefore we use a singular pronoun to refer back to them.)
Note that when two nouns refer to the same person, the determiner (the, my, this etc.) is used only before the first one.
My uncle and guardian is a doctor. (Here the nouns uncle and guardian refer to the same person.)
My uncle and my guardian are doctors. (Here the nouns uncle and guardian refer to two persons.)
When two singular nouns joined by and are preceded by each or every, the pronoun must be singular in number.
Every soldier and every sailor was in his place.
When two or more singular nouns are joined by or, either …or or neither…nor, the pronoun should be singular in number.
Either Alice or Mary forgot to take her umbrella.
Neither Peter nor John has done his homework.

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Non-finite verbs

Read the following sentences:

John thinks that he is a great artist.
I wish to learn English.

In sentence 1, the verb thinks has a subject. Its form is determined by the number and person of its subject, namely John. Verbs which are thus limited by number and person of their subject are called finite verbs. Note that all verbs in the indicative, imperative and subjunctive moods are finite, because they have subjects and are limited by the number and person of those subjects.
In sentence 2, the verb wish is finite, because it has a subject and is limited by the number and person of that subject, namely I. But to learn has no subject and is not limited by the number or person of the subject. It is used without any change whatever be the subject of the sentence.
Compare:

You wish to learn.
I wish to learn.
He wishes to learn.
They wish to learn.

As you can see, the verb wish changes its form according to the number and person of the subject. When the subject is a singular noun it becomes wishes. The verb to learn, however, remains the same. It is therefore described as a non-finite verb and its specific name is an infinitive.
There are three kinds of non-finite verbs:
The infinitive
Examples are: to learn, to write, to work, to break, to speak etc.
The participle
Examples are: learning, learned, writing, written, working, worked, breaking, broken, speaking, spoken etc.
The gerund or verbal noun
Examples are: learning, writing, working, running, speaking etc.

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Passive Voice Exercise

Change the following sentences from the Active voice to the passive voice.
1. The boy killed the spider.
2. The woodcutter felled the trees.
3. Columbus discovered America.
4. The master praised the boy.
5. The police arrested the thief.
6. The boys were making kites.
7. He has written a novel.
8. We will conquer the enemy.
9. The hunter shot the tiger.
10. Your manners irritate me.
11. He made a very remarkable discovery.
12. Everybody loves him.
13. My cousin has drawn a beautiful picture.
14. Somebody has put out the light.
15. Somebody has picked my pocket.
Answers
1. The spider was killed by the boy.
2. The trees were felled by the wood cutter.
3. America was discovered by Columbus.
4. The boy was praised by the master.
5. The thief was arrested by the police.
6. Kites were being made by the boys.
7. A novel has been written by him.
8. The enemy will be conquered by us.
9. The tiger was shot by the hunter.
10. I am irritated by your manners.
11. A very remarkable discovery was made by him.
12. He is loved by everybody.
13. A beautiful picture has been drawn by my cousin.
14. The light has been put out by somebody.
15. My pocket has been picked by somebody.

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Figures of speech – Simile and Metaphor

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