Some conjunctions and their correct use

Some conjunctions and their correct use

While

While is a subordinating conjunction. It is mainly used to indicate time. It can also show contrast.

Strike while the iron is hot.

Here the conjunction while shows time. More examples are given below.

Someone phoned while you were out.

While playing football, I sprained by ankle.

While can show contrast.

While some children learn fast, others need extra help.

While Peter is warm and friendly, his brother is quite moody.

Here the conjunction while shows contrast.

However

However can be used as a subordinating conjunction.

However poor he may be, he is not going to beg.

You can arrange the tables and chairs however you want.

However you look at this situation, it is quite challenging.

However can also be used as an adverb. In this case, it is followed by an adjective or another adverb.

However hard she tried, she couldn’t control her emotions.

Sometimes, however is used as a conjunctive adverb. In this case, it usually goes at the beginning of the sentence and is separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma.

Alan works three jobs in a day; however, he doesn’t earn much.

However can also go in other positions in a sentence.

He was confident of his success. His coach, however, wasn’t all that sure.

Since

The word since can be used as an adverb and a conjunction. When it is used as a conjunction, it can express time and cause.

I haven’t met her since she moved to Vegas.

I have been waiting for him since morning.

Since he hadn’t bought a ticket, they refused to let him in.

Unless and until

Unless shows condition. It means ‘if not’. Until means ‘up to the time when’.

I won’t be able to open the box unless you give me the keys.

I will wait here until you come back.

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Though, although and even though

Though, although and even though

Although

Although is a conjunction. It is used for introducing a statement that makes your main statement seem surprising.

• Although Jane was the most deserving candidate, she didn’t get the job.
• Although she is rich and famous, she is not happy.
• The soldiers fought bravely, and although they were badly wounded, they refused to surrender.

Though and even though

Though and although are interchangeable. Though is more common.

Though she was poor she would never ask for help.

Though difficult, the journey was not dangerous.

Even though is more emphatic than though and although.

The soldiers went on fighting even though they were badly injured.

Notes

Though, although and even though are subordinating conjunctions. They introduce a dependent clause that needs to be attached to an independent clause.

When clauses introduced by these subordinating conjunctions come at the beginning of a sentence, we usually separate them with a comma. Note that the commas can be left out if the clauses are very short.

The coordinating conjunction but can express the same idea.

The soldiers were badly injured but they went on fighting.

She was poor but she would never ask for help.

The same ideas can also be expressed using the transitional adverbs however, nevertheless and nonetheless.

They were badly injured; nevertheless, they went on fighting.

Jane was the most deserving candidate; however, she didn’t get the job.

It was a difficult race; nonetheless, over 1,000 runners participated.

Note the punctuation. Transitional adverbs do not connect two clauses; they merely facilitate the flow of ideas.

A transitional adverb should be preceded by a full stop or a semicolon. And it should be followed by a comma.

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Using where and wherever

Using where and wherever

The word where has several uses.

It can be used as a question adverb. In this case it introduces a direct or indirect question.

Where does she work?

I wonder where she works.

Where can be used as a relative adverb. In this case, it refers back to a noun in the main clause. As a relative adverb, where introduces a relative clause.

Do you know a shop where they sell used laptops?

Here where introduces the relative clause ‘where they sell used laptops’. It modifies the noun shop.

I know a place where you can hide the treasure.

Eventually he reached the point where he was beginning to suspect everyone.

Where can also be used as a conjunction. In this case, it connects two clauses.

Note

The preposition to can be dropped after where.

Where are you going? OR Where are you going to?

Where is often left out after words like anywhere, somewhere, everywhere and nowhere.

Is there anywhere I can sit down? (More natural than ‘Is there anywhere where I can sit down?’)

Wherever

The word wherever can be used as a conjunction and an adverb.

Wherever she went, she was followed by press photographers.

Wherever he goes, he takes his camera with him.

Sit wherever you want.

The word wherever can be used for emphasizing the word ‘where’ in questions that show surprise, interest or annoyance.

I have been looking for this key since morning. Wherever did you find it?

The word wherever can also be used for showing that you do not know where something is.

He said that he was going to Park Avenue, wherever that is.

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Building sentences with adverb clauses

Building sentences with adverb clauses

Let us practice building sentences with adverb clauses. An adverb clause serves the same function as an adverb. Adverbs are words used to modify verbs. Adverbs can also modify adjectives and other adverbs.

Just like an adjective clause, adverb clauses, too, are dependent or subordinate clauses.

A dependent clause cannot stand alone. It needs to be attached to an independent clause. Like an ordinary adverb, an adverb clause can modify a verb, an adjective or another adverb in the sentence.

Adverb clauses usually introduce ideas such as time, place, cause, reason, contrast, condition etc.

From Coordination to Subordination

Study the following examples.

James was feeling rather unwell.

He decided to consult a doctor.

We can combine these two sentences using a coordinating conjunction.

James was feeling rather unwell and decided to consult a doctor.

However, in this case, the coordination with and does not clearly identify the relationship between the ideas in these clauses. As you can see there is a cause and effect relationship between these two clauses.

To clarify that relationship, we can choose a subordinating conjunction.

As James was feeling rather well, he decided to consult a doctor.

OR Since James was feeling rather unwell, he decided to consult a doctor.

Here the subordinating conjunctions as and since clearly establish the cause and effect relationship between the two clauses. The subordinating conjunction because is also possible here.

Because he was feeling rather unwell, James decided to consult a doctor.

Another example is given below.

I have bought a chicken. Manuel might stay to lunch.

Here basically we are talking about a precaution – things that we do in order to be ready for possible future situations.

In case is the most appropriate subordinating conjunction that can be used in this situation.

I have bought a chicken in case Manual stays to lunch.

Note that after in case, we usually use a present tense to refer to the future.

Because can also be used to express the same idea.

I have bought a chicken because Manuel might stay to lunch.

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Conjunctions and relative pronouns: grammar exercise

Conjunctions and relative pronouns: grammar exercise

Complete the following sentences using appropriate conjunctions. More than one conjunction may be possible in many cases.

1. It is a question ………………….. nobody can answer.

2. I stayed an extra night …………………… I could see Merlin.

3. …………………. I was having a shower, I slipped on the floor.

4. ………………….. she was too angry to speak, Alice said nothing.

5. …………………… the coat was expensive, I bought it.

6. The house ………………… I live is very small.

7. I will always remember the day …………………. I first met you.

8. I have got a friend …………………. serves in the army.

9. Cook slowly ………………….. it is ready.

10. …………………… I will have time I am not sure at the moment.

Answers

1. It is a question that/which nobody can answer.

2. I stayed an extra night so that I could see Merlin.

3. While I was having a shower, I slipped on the floor.

4. As/because/since she was too angry to speak, Alice said nothing.

5. Although/though the coat was expensive, I bought it.

6. The house where I live is very small.

7. I will always remember the day when/that I first met you.

8. I have got a friend who serves in the army.

9. Cook slowly until it is ready.

10. Whether I will have time I am not sure at the moment.

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Expressing the reason

Expressing the reason

We can use several different grammatical structures to show the reason for something. For example, we can express that idea using the coordinating conjunction for.

I was tired after my journey, for I had been driving non-stop for twelve hours.

Notes

Although ‘for’ is grammatically correct in the sentence given above, it is rarely used. We are more likely to express the same idea using the subordinating conjunctions because, since or as.

I was tired after my journey because I had been driving non-stop for twelve hours.

OR

As / since I had been driving non-stop for twelve hours, I was tired after my journey.

More examples are given below.

They postponed the meeting because the chairman was ill.

As / since the chairman was ill, they postponed the meeting.

Strictly speaking, for can be used to express the same idea; however, it is mainly used in very formal contexts.

They postponed the meeting for the chairman was ill.

Notes

Clauses introduced by as and since usually come at the beginning of the sentence. Because-clauses tend to go after the main clause.

The same idea can also be expressed using the prepositions due to, because of and as a result of.

The meeting was postponed due to / because of the chairman’s illness.

Exercise

Complete the following sentences using an appropriate conjunction or preposition.

1. ………………… I was ill for several months, I lost my job.

a) because

b) due to

c) because of

2. It is raining again, …………………. we will have to cancel the picnic.

a) as

b) so

c) since

3. I decided to take a break, ………………. I was feeling tired.

a) for

b) because

c) Either could be used here

4. We were late ……………….. it rained.

a) because

b) because of

c) due to

5. The match was cancelled ………………. bad weather.

a) due to

b) because of

c) Either could be used here.

Answers

1. because; 2. so; 3. for/because; 4. because; 5. due to / because of

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Showing contrast and cause

Showing contrast and cause

If you repeat the same words and structures, your writing will become monotonous. Good writers always make a conscious effort to avoid repeating vocabulary within the same paragraph if possible. Fortunately, in English we can express the same idea in very many ways.

Showing opposition or contrast

Ideas that can be expressed using the coordinating conjunctions butand yet can also be expressed using the subordinating conjunctionsthough, even though, and although.

Study the examples given below.

It was raining, but we went out.

It was raining, yet we went out.

Though / although / even though it was raining, we went out.

We can also express the same ideas using the transitional adverbshowever, nevertheless and nonetheless.

It was raining; however, we went out.

It was raining; nevertheless / nonetheless, we went out.

Note that transitional adverbs (also called conjunctive adverbs) are not conjunctions. They cannot connect two clauses. A transitional adverb usually goes at the beginning of a clause and is separated by a full stop or a semicolon from the clause that goes before it.

Some prepositions can also be used to show contrast. Examples are:in spite of and despite. Note that prepositions are followed by nouns or pronouns which act as their objects.

In spite of the rain, we went out. OR Despite the rain, we went out. (NOT In spite of it was raining, we went out.)

Showing cause

We can show the cause of an action or a situation using several different structures.

Study the examples given below.

He was never on time, so he lost his job.

He was never on time and therefore he lost his job.

He was never on time and consequently he lost his job.

He was never on time and as a result he lost his job.

The expressions consequently, therefore, and as a result are transitional adverbs. They cannot connect two clauses; however, when they are preceded by the conjunction and, they act like conjunctions.

Compare:

He worked hard and therefore he succeeded.

OR

He worked hard; therefore, he succeeded.

Note the use of the semicolon in the second sentence.

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Common correlative conjunctions

Common correlative conjunctions

Correlative conjunctions are usually coordinating in nature because the sentence fragments they connect tend to be of equal rank. As you know, a coordinating conjunction connects two independent clauses. A subordinating conjunction, on the other hand, connects a dependent clause to an independent clause.

Some correlative conjunctions and their uses are explained below.

Such … that

• It was such a hot afternoon that we decided to stay indoors. (Here the correlative connects the two clauses: It was a hot afternoon and We decided to stay indoors.)
• She was such a bad tempered woman that nobody liked her. (Here the correlative connects the two clauses: She was a bad tempered woman and Nobody liked her.)

Scarcely …when

• I had scarcely closed my eyes when someone knocked on the door.
• OR Scarcely had I closed my eyes when someone knocked on the door.

As (many/much) … as

• There are as many saucers as there are cups.
• You are not as clever as you think you are.
• His wife is as tall as he is.

No sooner … than

• She no sooner completed one project than she started working on the next.
• OR No sooner did she complete one project than she started working on the next.

Students sometimes wrongly use when in this structure. Remember that sooner is a comparative word and hence it should be followed by than, not when.

Rather … than

• I would rather read a book than watch TV.
• They would rather starve than surrender.
• She would rather dance than sing.

The expression rather than is normally used in parallel structures. For example, with two adjectives, two adverbs, nouns, infinitives etc.

• I would prefer to visit Switzerland rather than Australia.
• I would prefer to walk rather than drive.

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Correlative conjunctions

Correlative conjunctions

You already know what a conjunction is. It is a word used to connect two words, phrases or clauses. Examples are: and, but, because, when, while, since, if etc. There are mainly two types of conjunctions: coordinating conjunctions and subordinating conjunctions.

Most conjunctions are simple one word structures, but some conjunctions come in pairs and then they are called correlative conjunctions. Most correlative conjunctions are coordinating conjunctions. Examples are: either…or, neither…nor, not only…but also and both…and.

When it comes to correlative conjunctions, you have to use both parts of the conjunction in different places to make them work.

• He wants either the chocolates or the cake.
• He said that he would like to have both the chocolates and the cake.
• You can have neither the cake nor the ice-cream.
• I have not yet decided whether I will have the cake or the ice-cream.
• He ate not only the chocolates but also the ice-cream.

While using a correlative conjunction, you have to make sure that the two parts of the conjunction go before words of the same kind. For example, if you use a noun after neither, you have to use another noun after nor. Students sometimes incorrectly mix the structures.

• He is neither intelligent nor diligent. (Here we use adjectives (intelligent and diligent) after neither and nor.)
• They both sang and danced. (Here we use verbs after both and and.)
• Neither the engineer nor his colleagues could detect the problem.

Negative correlatives (e.g. neither…nor, scarcely…when) can go at the beginning of a sentence and then we use an inverted word order.

Study the examples given below.

• He neither wrote nor called. OR Neither did he write nor didhe call. (Note that when a negative word comes at the beginning of the sentence, the auxiliary verb comes before the subject. If the original sentence doesn’t have an auxiliary verb we use form of do.)
• He not only smokes but also drinks.
• Not only does he smoke but he also drinks.

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Difference between conjunctions, relative pronouns and relative adverbs

Difference between conjunctions, relative pronouns and relative adverbs

Conjunctions, relative pronouns and relative adverbs can be used to connect two clauses. The grammar is different. Prepositions do not connect two clauses. They merely show the relationship between a noun/pronoun and another word in the sentence.

Relative pronouns

Relative pronouns are different from conjunctions. Relative pronouns are important connecting devices. They not only connect two clauses but also act as the subject or object of the verb in the relative clause. This is the main difference between conjunctions and relative pronouns. Conjunctions merely connect two clauses. They do not serve any other purpose.

Study the sentences given below.

This is the letter. My mother sent me this letter.

We can connect these two clauses.

This is the letter that my mother sent me.

Here the relative pronoun that replaces the phrase this letter and acts as the object of the verb sent. It is easy to decide whether a relative pronoun is the subject or the object. When it is the object it will be immediately followed by another noun which acts as the subject. In this case, the relative pronoun ‘that’ is followed by the noun ‘my mother’ which acts as the subject.

Another example is given below.

This is the boy. He won the first prize.

This is the boy who won the first prize.

Here the relative pronoun who replaces the pronoun he. It acts as the subject of the relative clause.

Relative adverb

The relative adverb not only modifies a verb, but also joins the two clauses in a sentence. Note that a relative adverb does not act as the subject or object in the relative clause. It merely replaces an adverb.

This is the house. John lives here.

This is the house where John lives.

Here the relative adverb where replaces the place adverb here.

Another example is given below.

I first met Susie on that day. I will never forget that day.

I will never forget the day when I first met Susie.

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No sooner … than, Hardly…when

No sooner … than, Hardly…when

If the second event occurs immediately after the first, we can express that idea using the structure no sooner … than.

Note that in this structure no sooner introduces the event that occurred first.

• No sooner had I arrived at the station than the train came. (= I came first and the train arrived right after me.)
• No sooner had we heard the noise than we rushed to the spot.
• No sooner had she finished one project than she started working on the next.
• No sooner had I closed my eyes than I fell asleep.

Note that did is also possible in this structure.

• No sooner did I arrive at the station than the train came.
• No sooner did we hear the noise than we rushed to the spot.

Notes

When we begin a sentence with a negative word, we put the auxiliary verb before the subject.

• No sooner had she read the letter than she started crying. (NOT No sooner she read the letter than she started crying.)

Note that when and before are not possible in this structure.

Hardly and scarcely

It is possible to express the same idea using hardly/scarcely…when.

• Hardly had I reached the station when the train came.
• Scarcely had I reached the station when the train arrived.

As soon as

This structure is also used with the same meaning.

• As soon as I arrived at the station, the train came.
• As soon as she finished one project, she started working on the next.

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Using since

AUGUST 17, 2013 - 

Since can be used as an adverb, a conjunction and a preposition.

Since as a preposition

As a preposition, since is followed by a noun/noun equivalent which acts as its object.

• She has changed a lot since her marriage.
• Everything has changed so much since our last meeting.

As an adverb

When since is used as an adverb, it is not followed by a noun.

• The boy went missing on Tuesday and hasn’t been seen since.

As a conjunction

Since can also be used as a conjunction. As a conjunction, since is used to connect two clauses. Clauses introduced by since typically show one of the two associations: time or cause/reason

• Since he had not studied hard, he failed his exam.
• Since I had no money, I couldn’t buy anything to eat.
• Since she was tired, she took some rest.

A since-clause introducing reason usually comes at the beginning of the sentence. A since-clause indicating time can come either before or after the main clause.

• She has written many books since she left college. / Since she left college, she has written many books.

Notes

When since is used to talk about time, the verb in the main clause is usually in the present perfect or past perfect (simple or continuous) tense.

• She had been acting in films since she was four.
• I have been working on this project since the end of June.
• It has been raining since morning.

Sometimes the simple present or simple past tense is also used.

Since means ‘starting at a particular point in the past and continuing until now’.

• I have known him since he was born.
• India has been an independent country since 1947.
• It has been several decades since India won a gold medal in Olympic Hockey.
• It has been several centuries since Vasco da Gama landed in India.

Ever since

• She started teaching at twenty and has been doing it ever since.
• Ever since I was a child, I have wanted to become a writer.

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Using since

AUGUST 17, 2013 - 

Since can be used as an adverb, a conjunction and a preposition.

Since as a preposition

As a preposition, since is followed by a noun/noun equivalent which acts as its object.

• She has changed a lot since her marriage.
• Everything has changed so much since our last meeting.

As an adverb

When since is used as an adverb, it is not followed by a noun.

• The boy went missing on Tuesday and hasn’t been seen since.

As a conjunction

Since can also be used as a conjunction. As a conjunction, since is used to connect two clauses. Clauses introduced by since typically show one of the two associations: time or cause/reason

• Since he had not studied hard, he failed his exam.
• Since I had no money, I couldn’t buy anything to eat.
• Since she was tired, she took some rest.

A since-clause introducing reason usually comes at the beginning of the sentence. A since-clause indicating time can come either before or after the main clause.

• She has written many books since she left college. / Since she left college, she has written many books.

Notes

When since is used to talk about time, the verb in the main clause is usually in the present perfect or past perfect (simple or continuous) tense.

• She had been acting in films since she was four.
• I have been working on this project since the end of June.
• It has been raining since morning.

Sometimes the simple present or simple past tense is also used.

Since means ‘starting at a particular point in the past and continuing until now’.

• I have known him since he was born.
• India has been an independent country since 1947.
• It has been several decades since India won a gold medal in Olympic Hockey.
• It has been several centuries since Vasco da Gama landed in India.

Ever since

• She started teaching at twenty and has been doing it ever since.
• Ever since I was a child, I have wanted to become a writer.

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Common mistakes in the use of some conjunctions

Common mistakes in the use of some conjunctions

Scarcely and hardly

These words are followed by when or before, not than.

• Hardly had I entered the room when a strange creature ran out. OR Scarcely had I entered the room when a strange creature ran out. (NOT Hardly had I entered the room, than …)

No sooner is followed by than, not when

• No sooner did she complete one project than she started working on the next.

As you can see, the adverbs hardly, scarcely and no sooner are all negative expressions. When a negative expression comes at the beginning of a sentence, we use inverted word order. That means the auxiliary verb comes before the subject.

These adverbs can also go in mid-position. In that case, we use normal word order.

• I had hardly entered the room when a strange creature ran out.
• I had scarcely solved one problem before another cropped up.

Not only…but also

This correlative conjunction is often confused. When using not only… but also, you must make sure that both parts of this conjunction go before words of the same parts of speech.

• The controversy not only damages our image but also decreases investor confidence.

Here not only and but also go before two verbs.

• She was not only arrogant but also rude.

Here not only and but also go before two adjectives.

Lest

The conjunction lest is not very common in modern English. This word has a negative meaning. Therefore, it should not be used withnot. The only auxiliary verb that can follow lest is should.

• Work hard lest you should fail. OR Work hard lest you fail. (NOT Work hard lest you should not fail.)

The same idea can be expressed using the expression or else.

• Work hard, or else you will fail.
• Leave on time, or else you will miss the train.

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