Conjunctions exercise

Combine the following sentences using appropriate conjunctions.
1. He was tired. He had been working for a long time.
2. You will win the first prize. You have to work hard.
3. He took out his brush. He began to paint.
4. Hurry up. You will be late.
5. She may be poor. She will not take anything that does not belong to her.
6. Something must have fallen. I heard a sound.
7. They must have fallen asleep. There is no light in their room.
8. The train had left. I reached the station later.
9. He was tired. He decided to get some rest.
10. I waited for him. He arrived.
11. He was angry. Somebody had stolen his bicycle.
12. It was raining. We went out.
Answers
1. He was tired because he had been working for a long time.
2. You will win the first prize if you work hard.
3. He took out his brush and began to paint.
4. Hurry up or you will be late.
5. She may be poor but she will not take anything that does not belong to her.
6. Something must have fallen for I heard a sound.
7. They must have fallen asleep for there is no light in their room.
8. The train had left before I reached the station.
9. He was tired so he decided to get some rest.
10. I waited for him until he arrived.
11. He was angry because somebody had stolen his bicycle.
12. It was raining but we went out. / Though it was raining we went out.

Rewrite using modal auxiliary verbs

In English, we can express a lot of ideas using modal auxiliary verbs.
The modal auxiliary verbs are: will, would, can, could, may, might, must, ought to, need, used to and dare.
They express ideas such as possibility, permission, prohibition, obligation, necessity, duty, willingness etc.
Rewrite the following sentences using modal auxiliary verbs. Make sure that the meaning does not change.
1. It is not necessary for you to wait any longer.
2. You are required to respect the national flag.
3. She was able to read when she was three.
4. I was able to solve the problem.
5. Perhaps she would come.
6. You are prohibited from entering my home.
7. You are allowed to go home.
8. She is able to speak English.
9. It is possible to blow glass.
10. It is not necessary for her to pay for that call.
11. It is possible for wars to break out at any time.
12. I prefer to stay at home instead of going to the club.
Answers
1. You need not wait any longer.
2. You must respect the national flag.
3. She could read when she was three.
4. I could solve the problem.
5. She might come.
6. You must not enter my home.
7. You may go home.
8. She can speak English.
9. Glass can be blown.
10. She need not pay for that call.
11. Wars can break out at any time.
12. I would rather stay at home than go to the club.

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Complete the following sentences using an appropriate word or phrase.
1. Do you enjoy ………………. models from clay?
a) to make
b) make
c) making
d) to making
2. While holidaying in Sydney, Martin …………….. a strong Australian accent.
a) caught
b) earned
c) acquired
d) scored
3. ……………………. he was, he played well.
a) Though tired
b) Tired though
c) As tired
d) Although tired
4. ………………. she was, she could not react at all.
a) Though shocked
b) Although shocked
c) As shocked
d) Shocked as
5. The front door was open, ……………… nobody was at home.
a) as
b) and
c) but
d) so
6. The bell has already ……………………..
a) rang
b) ring
c) rung
d) ringing
7. Stella ………………….. wait for her birthday.
a) can hardly
b) can’t hardly
c) won’t hardly
d) couldn’t hardly
8. There were ………………… students in the class than expected.
a) few
b) fewer
c) less
d) lesser
9. I did …………………… work today than yesterday.
a) fewer
b) lesser
c) less
d) few
10. Dad has …………………. on the sofa all morning.
a) laid
b) lain
c) lied
d) lay
Answers
1. Do you enjoy making models from clay?
2. While holidaying in Sydney, Martin acquired a strong Australian accent.
3. Tired though he was, he played well.
4. Shocked as she was, she could not react at all.
5. The front door was open, but nobody was at home.
6. The bell has already rung.
7. Stella can hardly wait for her birthday.
8. There were fewer students in the class than expected.
9. I did less work today than yesterday.
10. Dad has lain on the sofa all morning.

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A transitive verb takes an object. An intransitive verb, on the other hand, does not have an object.

Study the examples given below.

The peon rang the bell.
The peon rang what? The bell

As you can see, here the verb ‘rang’ has an object. Therefore, it is a transitive verb.
Now consider another example.

The boy laughed loudly.

Here the verb ‘laughed’ does not have an object. Therefore, it is an intransitive verb.
When an intransitive verb is used in a causative sense it becomes transitive.
Examples are given below.

Intransitive: The dog walks.
Transitive: The man walks the dog. (Here the verb ‘walks’ becomes transitive because it has an object. The man causes the dog to walk.)
Intransitive: Birds fly in the sky.
Transitive: The boys fly their kites. (Here the verb ‘fly’ becomes transitive because it has an object. The boys cause the kites to fly.)

Some common verbs are distinguished as transitive or intransitive by their spelling.
Study the examples given below.

Many trees fall in a storm. (Here the verb ‘fall’ is intransitive. It does not have an object.)
Woodcutters fell trees. (NOT Woodcutters fall trees. Fell means cause to fall.)
The doctor asked the patient to lie still. (Here the verb ‘lie’ is intransitive.)
Lay the books on the table. (Lay means cause to lie. Here the verb ‘lay’ is transitive.)
Rise with the lark. (Here the verb ‘rise’ is intransitive.)
The teacher asked the boys to raise their hands. (Here the verb ‘raise’ is transitive because it has an object.)

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This grammar exercise tests your ability to make questions in English.
1. …………………… you received my letter of October 3? (do / have / will)
2. Why …………………… you crying? (have / is / are)
3. What ………………….. they looking at? ( have / are / do)
4. How much ………………….. that apartment cost? (does / have / do / has)
5. ………………….. you like Beethoven? (Do / Have)
6. What ………………………. ‘nepotism’ mean? (does / has / is)
7. ………………………. you show me your identity card? (Can / Do / Have)
8. ………………………. you heard anything from them? (Have / Do / Can)
9. What ………………………. she want? (does / has / is)
10. Where ………………………. you been all this while? (have / do / had)
11. ………………………. you go swimming last weekend? (Did / Had / Have)
12. ………………………. she coming tomorrow? (Is / Does / Has / Will)
13. When ………………………. the tickets reserved? (was / were / did / had)
14. Where ………………………. the Prime Minister and his wife staying? (was / are / have)
Answers
1. Have you received my letter of October 3?
2. Why are you crying?
3. What are they looking at?
4. How much does that apartment cost?
5. Do you like Beethoven?
6. What does ‘nepotism’ mean?
7. Can you show me your identity card?
8. Have you heard anything from them?
9. What does she want?
10. Where have you been all this while?
11. Did you go swimming last weekend?
12. Is she coming tomorrow?
13. When were the tickets reserved?
14. Where are the Prime Minister and his wife staying?

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Complete the following sentences using an appropriate conjunction or preposition.
1. …………………. I had a headache, I enjoyed the movie. (Although / Even if)
2. We were late …………………. the rain. (because / because of)
3. We managed to reach on time ……………………. the rain. (because of / in spite of)
4. She went to work ……………………… her illness. (despite / because)
5. …………………… his best efforts, he could not pass the test. (In spite of / Because of)
6. The car is parked …………………….. the post office. (in front of / before)
7. I have bought a chicken …………………… Peter comes. (if / in case)
8. ……………….. he hadn’t paid the fee, they cancelled his subscription. (Since / so)
9. ………………… his stellar performance, he could not advance to the next round. (In spite of / despite of)
Answers
1. Although I had a headache, I enjoyed the movie.
2. We were late because of the rain.
3. We managed to reach on time in spite of the rain.
4. She went to work despite her illness.
5. In spite of his best efforts, he could not pass the test.
6. The car is parked in front of the post office.
7. I have bought a chicken in case Peter comes.
8. Since he hadn’t paid the fee, they cancelled his subscription.
9. In spite of his stellar performance, he could not advance to the next round.

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Incorrect: He is going to home.
Correct: He is going home.
The preposition ‘to’ is not normally used with ‘home’.
Incorrect: The children have been playing since two hours.
Correct: The children have been playing for two hours.
We use ‘for’ to indicate duration. ‘Since’ is used with the starting point of action.
Incorrect: An ordinary man’s life is different from a minister.
Correct: An ordinary man’s life is different from that of a minister.
Do not omit the words ‘that’ and ‘those’ in comparisons.
Incorrect: He hit me by a stick.
Correct: He hit me with a stick.
The preposition ‘by’ shows the agent – the person who performs the action. The preposition ‘with’ shows the tool with which the action is performed.
Incorrect: I need a pen to write.
Correct: I need a pen to write with.
Incorrect: Many people died by cholera.
Correct: Many people died of cholera.
Incorrect: India has been independent for 1947.
Correct: India has been independent since 1947.
Incorrect: I am ill since three weeks.
Correct: I have been ill for three weeks.
In expressions with ‘for’ and ‘since’, we normally use the present perfect and present perfect continuous tenses.
Incorrect: This paper is inferior than that.
Correct: This paper is inferior to that.
After adjectives like inferior, superior, senior and junior, we use the preposition ‘to’ instead of the preposition ‘than’.
Incorrect: This is different to that.
Correct: This is different from that. / This is different than that.

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An adjective clause is a subordinate clause which serves the same purpose as an adjective. It modifies a noun or pronoun in the main clause.
Adjective clauses are introduced by a relative pronoun or relative adverb.
Examples are given below.
Uneasy lies the head that wears the crown. (Here the adjective clause ‘that wears the crown’ modifies the noun head.)
Winston Churchill was a great statesman who also wrote many books. (Here the adjective clause ‘who also wrote many books’ modifies the noun statesman.)
This is the house where I was born. (Here the adjective clause ‘where I was born’ modifies the noun house.)
The reason why she did it is obvious.
Sometimes a relative pronoun may introduce a coordinate clause.
Study the example given below.
I met James who gave me this book. (= I met James and he gave me this book.)
Here the clause ‘who gave me this book’ does not identify James. It is a co-ordinate clause that can stand on its own.
Now study the example given below.
He is the boy who stole the watch.
Here the adjective clause ‘who stole the watch’ identifies and describes the noun ‘boy’. Therefore, it is an adjective clause.
More examples of ‘who’ and ‘which’ used to introduce coordinate clauses are given below.
I called James who came at once. (= I called James and he came at once.)
The prisoner was taken before the General, who condemned him to death. (= The prisoner was taken before the General and he condemned him to death.)

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The words some and any are determiners. They are used to modify nouns. Some and any can be used with both countable and uncountable nouns. They show an indefinite quantity or number.

There are some mangoes on the tree. (We don’t mention the exact number of mangoes on the tree.)
I haven’t got any money.
She has some friends in Hong Kong.

Some and any can be used with both singular and plural nouns.

Have you got any friends? (Here ‘any’ is used to modify the plural noun ‘friends’.)
We haven’t got any oil. (Here ‘any’ is used with the singular uncountable noun ‘oil’.)

Some and any are used to refer to an indefinite quantity or number.
Use ‘some’ in affirmative sentences. We can use some with both countable and uncountable nouns.

I need some oil.
There were some boys in the class.
I need some help.

Use ‘any’ in negative and interrogative sentences.

She hasn’t got any friends.
Have you got any milk?

Exceptions
Some can be used in polite requests and offers.

Would you like some cheese? (More natural than ‘Would you like any cheese?’)
Could I have some more rice? (Polite request)

Common expressions with some include: somebody, someone, something and somewhere. They are all used in affirmative sentences.

I need someone to help you.

Common expressions with any include: anybody, anyone, anything and anywhere. They are all mainly used in negative sentences and questions.

I haven’t got anything to do.
She hasn’t got anyone to help her.

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A simile is a figure of speech in which one thing is compared with another things. Here are some common similes in English.
As crooked as a dog’s hind leg
If somebody is as crooked as a dog’s hind leg, they are dishonest.
No one will trust you if you are as crooked as a dog’s hind leg.
As fat as a pig
If somebody is as fat as a pig, they are very fat.
I must start dieting. I am as fat as a pig.
As gentle as a lamb
If somebody is as gentle as a lamb, they are very gentle.
The boy is as gentle as a lamb when his parents are around.
As gruff as a bear
If somebody is as gruff as a bear, they are very unsociable.
The lady next door is as gruff as a bear. She never invites people to her home.
As hungry as a bear
When you are as hungry as a bear, you are very hungry.
The boy was as hungry as a bear when he got home from school.
As innocent as a lamb
If someone is as innocent as a lamb, they are very innocent or naïve.
Everybody loves Julie. She is as innocent as a lamb.
As meek as a lamb
If somebody is as meek as a lamb, they are very quiet or docile.
As a teenager Frieda was as meek as a lamb. I still can’t believe that she has become an aggressive business woman.
As nervous as a cat
If somebody is as nervous as a cat, they are very nervous.
She was as nervous as a cat during the interview.

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Simple Past Tense
I sang
We can use several tenses to talk about
the past, but the simple past tense i s the one we use most of ten.
In this lesson we look at the structure and use of the simple past tense, foll owed by a quiz to check
your understanding:
How do we make the Simple Past Tense?
To make the simple past tense, we use:
· past form only
or
· auxiliary did + base form
Here you can see examples of the past form and base form for irregular verbs and regular verbs:
V1
base
V2
past
V3
past participle
regular
verb
work
explode
like
worked
exploded
liked
worked
exploded
liked
The past form for all
regular verbs ends in -ed.
irregular
verb
go
see
sing
went
saw
sang
gone
seen
sung
The past form for
irregular verbs is
variable. You need to
learn i t by heart.
You do not need the past participle
form to make the simple past tense. It
is shown here for completeness only.
The structure for positive sentences in the simple past tense is:
subject + main verb
past
The structure for negative sentences in the simple past tense is:
subject + auxiliary verb + not + main verb
did base
The structure for question sentences in the simple past tense is:
auxiliary verb + subject + main verb
did base
The auxiliary verb did i s not conjugated. It is the same for all persons (I did, you did, he did etc). And
the base form and past form do not change. Look at these examples with the main verbs go and work:
subject auxiliary verb    main verb
I      went to school .
+
You      worked very hard.
She did not go with me.
-We did not work yesterday.
Di d you    go to London?
?
Di d they    work at home?
Exception!The verb to be is different. We conjugate the verb to be (I was, you were, he/she/i t was,
we were, they were); and we do not use an auxiliary for negative and quest i on sentences. To make a
question, we exchange the subject and verb. Look at these examples:
subject main verb
I, he/she/i t was    here.
+
You, we, they were    in London.
I, he/she/i t was not there.
-You, we, they were not happy.
Was I, he/she/i t    right?
?
Were you, we, they    late?
How do we use the Simple Past Tense?
We use the simple past tense to talk about an action or a situation—an event—in the past. The event
can be short or long.
Here are some short events with the simple past tense:
PDF
The car exploded at 9.30am yesterday.
She went to the door.
We did not hear the telephone.
Did you see that car?
past present future
The action is in the past.
Here are some long events with the simple past tense:
I lived in Bangkok for 10 years.
The Jurassic period lasted about 62 million years.
We did not sing at the concert.
Did you watch TV last night?
past present future
The action is in the past.
Notice that i t does not matter how long ago the event is: i t can be a few minutes or seconds in the past,
or millions of   years in the past. Also i t does not matter how long the event is. It can be a few
milliseconds (car explosion) or millions of   years (Jurassic period). We use the simple past tense when:
· the event is in the past
· the event is completely finished
· we say (or understand) the time and/or place of the event
In general , if we say the time or place of the
event, we must use the simple past tense; we
cannot use the present perfect.
Here are some more examples:
· I lived in that house when I was young.
· He didn't like the movie.
· What did you eat for dinner?
· John drove to London on Monday.
· Mary did not go to work yesterday.
· Did you play tennis last week?
· I was at work yesterday.
· We were not l ate (for the train).
· Were you angry?
Note that when we tell a story, we usually use the simple past tense. We may use the past continuous
tense to "set the scene", but we almost always use the simple past tense for the action. Look at this
example of the beginning of a story:
"The wind was howling around the hotel and the rain was pouring down. It was col d. The door opened
and James Bond entered. He took off his coat, which was very wet, and ordered a drink at the bar. He
sat down in the corner of the lounge and quietly drank his..."
This page shows the use of the simple past
tense to talk about past events. But note that
there are some other uses for the simple past
tense, for example in conditional or if
sentences.

Present Perfect Continuous Tense
I have been singing
How do we make the Present Perfect Continuous Tense?
The structure of the present perfect continuous tense i s:
subject + auxiliary verb + auxiliary verb + main verb
have
has
been    base + ing
Here are some examples of the present perfect continuous tense:
subject auxiliary verb     auxiliary verb main verb
+
I have    been waiting for one hour.
+ You have    been talking too much.
-It has not been raining.
- We have not been playing football .
? Have you    been seeing her?
? Have they    been doing their homework?
Contractions
When we use the present perfect continuous tense in speaking, we of ten contract the subject and the
first auxiliary. We also sometimes do this in informal   writing.
I have been I've been
You have been You've been
He has been
She has been
It has been
John has been
The car has been
He's been
She' s been
It' s been
John's been
The car's been
We have been We've been
They have been They've been
Here are some examples:
· I've been reading.
· The car's been giving trouble.
· We've been playing tennis for two hours.
How do we use the Present Perfect Continuous Tense?
This tense is called the present perfect continuous tense. There i s usually a connect i on with the
present or now.There are basically two uses for the present perfect continuous tense:
1. An action that has just stopped or recently stopped
We use the present perfect continuous tense to ta k about an action that started in the past and stopped
recently. There i s usually a result now.
I'm tired because I've been running.
past present future
!!!
Recent action. Result now.
· I'm t i red
[now]
because I've been running.
· Why is the grass wet
[now]
? Has i t been raining?
· You don't understand
[now]
because you haven' t been listening.
2. An action continuing up to now
We use the present perfect continuous tense to tal k about an action that started in the past and i s
continuing now. This is of ten used with for or since.
I have been reading for 2 hours.
past present future
Act i on started in past. Act i on is continuing now.
· I have been reading for 2 hours. [I am st ill reading now.]
· We've been studying since 9 o'clock. [We' re st ill studying now.]
· How long have you been learning English? [You are still   learning now.]
· We have not been smoking. [And we are not smoking now.]
For and Since with Present Perfect Continuous Tense
We of ten use for and since with the present perfect tense.
· We use for to talk about a period of time—5 minutes, 2 weeks, 6 years.
· We use since to talk about a point in past time—9 o'clock, 1st January, Monday.
for since
a period of time a point in past time
20 minutes 6.15pm
three days Monday
6 months January
4 years 1994
2 centuries 1800
a long time I left school
ever the beginning of time
etc etc
Here are some examples:
· I have been studying for 3 hours.
· I have been watching TV since 7pm.
· Tara hasn't been feeling well for 2 weeks.
· Tara hasn't been visiting us since March.
· He has been playing football for a long time.
· He has been living in Bangkok since he lef
For can be used wit h all tenses. Since is
usually used with perfect tenses only.
t school.

Present Perfect Tense
I have sung
The present perfect tense is a rather important tense in English, but i t gives speakers of some languages
a difficult time. That is because i t uses concepts or ideas that do not exist in those languages. In fact,
the structure of the present perfect tense is very simple. The problems come with the use of the tense.
In addition, there are some differences in usage between British and American English.
In this lesson we look at the structure and use of the present perfect, foll owed by a quiz to check your
understanding:
· Structure: how to make the present perfect tense
· Use: when and why to use the present perfect tense
· For and Since with the present perfect tense. What's the difference?
· Present Perfect Quiz
The present perfect tense is really a very
interesting tense, and a very useful one. Try
not to translate the present perfect tense into
your language. Just try to accept the concepts
of this tense and learn to "think" present
perfect! You will soon l earn to like the
present perfect tense!
How do we make the Present Perfect Tense?
The structure of the present perfect tense is:
subject + auxiliary verb + main verb
have    past participle
Here are some examples of the present perfect tense:
subject auxiliary verb    main verb
+
I have seen ET.
+ You have eaten mine.
-She has not been to Rome.
- We have not played football.
? Have you finished?
? Have they done it ?
Contractions with the present perfect tense
When we use the present perfect tense in speaking, we usually contract the subject and auxiliary verb.
We also somet imes do this when we wri te.
I have I've
You have You'v e
He has
She has
It has
John has
The car has
He's
She' s
It' s
John's
The car's
We have We've
They have They've
Here are some examples:
· I've finished my work.
· John's seen ET.
· They've gone home.
How do we use the Present Perfect Tense?
This tense is called the present perfect tense. There i s always a connect i on with the past and wi th the
present. There are basically three uses for the present perfect tense:
1. experience
2. change
3. continuing situation
1. Present perfect tense for experience
We of ten use the present perfect tense to talk about experience from the past. We are not interested in
when you did something. We only want to know if you did it:
I have seen ET.
He's or he's??? Be careful! The 's
contraction is used for the auxiliary verbs
have and be. For example, "It' s eaten" can
mean:
· It has eaten. [present perfect tense,
active voice]
· It is eaten. [present tense, passive
voice]
It i s usually clear from the context.
He has lived in Bangkok.
Have you been there?
We have never eaten caviar.
past present future
!!!
The action or state was in the
past.
In my head, I have a memory
now.
Connection with past: the event was in the past.
Connection with present: in my head, now, I have a memory of the event; I know something about
the event; I have experience of   i t.
2. Present perfect tense for change
We also use the present perfect tense to talk about a change or new information:
I have bought a car.
past present future
- +
Last week I didn' t have a car. Now I have a car.
John has broken his leg.
past present future
+ -Yesterday John had a good l eg. Now he has a bad leg.
Has the price gone up?
past present future
+ -Was the price $1.50 yesterday? Is the price $1.70 today?
The police have arrested the killer.
past present future
- +
Yesterday the killer was free. Now he is in prison.
Connection with past: the past i s the opposite of the present.
Connection with present: the present i s the opposite of the past.
Americans do not use the present perfect
tense so much as British speakers. Americans
of ten use the past tense instead. An American
might say "Did you have lunch?", where a
British person would say "Have you had
lunch?"
3. Present perfect tense for continuing situation
We of ten use the present perfect tense to talk about a continuing situation. This i s a state that started
in the past and continues in the present (and will   probably continue into the future). This i s a state
(not an action). We usually use for or since with this structure.
I have worked here since June.
He has been ill for 2 days.
How long have you known Tara?
past present future
The situation started in the past. It continues up to now.
(It will probably continue into
the future.)
Connection with past: the situation started in the past.
Connection with present: the situation continues in the present.
For & Since with Present Perfect Tense
We of ten use for and since with the present perfect tense.
· We use for to talk about a period of time—5 minutes, 2 weeks, 6 years.
· We use since to talk about a point in past time—9 o'clock, 1st January, Monday.

for / since
a period of time a point in past time
x------------20 minutes 6.15pm
three days Monday
6 months January
4 years 1994
2 centuries 1800
a long time I lef t school
ever the beginning of time
etc etc
Here are some examples:
· I have been here for 20 minutes.
· I have been here since 9 o'clock.
· John hasn' t called for 6 months.
· John hasn' t called since February.
· He has worked in New York for a long time.
· He has worked in New York since he left school .
For can be used with all tenses. Since is
usually used with perfect tenses only.

Present Continuous Tense
I am singing
We of ten use the present continuous tense in English. It is very different from the simple present tense,
both in structure and in use.
In this lesson we look the structure and use of the present continuous tense, followed by a quiz to check
your understanding:
· Structure: how do we make the present continuous tense?
· Use: when and why do we use the present continuous tense?
· Spelling: how do we spell verbs with -ing for the present continuous tense?
· Present Continuous Tense Quiz
Continuous tenses are also called
progressive tenses. So the present
progressive tense is the same as the present
continuous tense.
How do we make the Present Continuous Tense?
The structure of the present continuous tense is:
subject + auxiliary verb + main verb
be    base + ing
Look at these examples:
subject auxiliary verb   main verb
+
I am    speaking to you.
+ You are    reading this.
-She is not staying in London.
- We are not playing football?
Is he    watching TV?
Are they waiting for John?
How do we use the Present Continuous Tense?
We use the present continuous tense to talk about:
· action happening now
· action in the future
Present continuous tense for action happening now
a) for action happening exactly now
I am eating my lunch.
past present future
The action is happening now.
Look at these examples. Right now you are looking at this screen and at the same time...
...the pages are turning. ...the candle is burning. ...the numbers are spinning.
b) for action happening around now
The action may not be happening exactly now, but it is happening just before and j ust af ter now, and i t
is not permanent or habitual .
John is going out with Mary.
past present future
The action is happening around now.
Look at these examples:
· Muriel is learning to drive.
· I am living with my sister until I find an apartment.
Present continuous tense for the future
We can also use the present continuous tense to talk about the future—if we add a future word!! We
must add (or understand from the context) a future word. "Future words" include, for example,
tomorrow, next year, in June, at Christmas etc. We only use the present continuous tense to talk
about the future when we have planned to do something before we speak. We have already made a
decision and a plan before speaking.
I am taking my exam next month.
past present future
!!!
A firm plan or programme exists
now.
The action is in the future.
Look at these examples:
· We're eating in a restaurant tonight. We've already booked the table..
· They can pl ay tennis with you tomorrow. They're not working.
· When are you starting your new job?
In these examples, we have a firm plan or programme before speaking. The decision and plan were
made before speaking.
How do we spell the Present Continuous Tense?
We make the present continuous tense by adding -ing to the base verb. Normally it's simple—we just
add -ing. But sometimes we have to change the word a little. Perhaps we double the last letter, or we
drop a letter. Here are the rules to help you know how to spell the present continuous tense.
Just add -ing to the base verb:
work > working
pl ay > playing
assist > assisting
see > seeing
Basic rule
be > being
Exception1
If the base verb ends in consonant + stressed vowel + consonant, double the last letter:
s t o p
consonant
stressed
vowel
consonant
(vowel s = a, e, i , o, u)
stop > stopping
run > running
begin > beginning
Note that this exception does not apply when the last syllable of the base verb is not
stressed:
open > opening
If the base verb ends in ie, change the ie to y:
lie > lying
Exception2
die > dying
If the base verb ends in vowel + consonant +e, omit the e:
come > coming
Exception3
mistake > mistaking

Simple Present Tense
I sing
How do we make the Simple Present Tense?
subject + auxiliary verb + main verb
do    base
There are three important exceptions:
1. For positive sentences, we do not normally use the auxiliary.
2. For the 3rd person singular (he, she, i t), we add s to the main verb or es to the auxiliary.
3. For the verb to be, we do not use an auxiliary, even for questions and negatives.
Look at these examples with the main verb like:
subject auxiliary verb    main verb
I, you, we, they      like coffee.
+
He, she, i t      likes coffee.
I, you, we, they do not like coffee.
-He, she, i t does not like coffee.
Do I, you, we, they    like coffee?
?
Does he, she, i t    like coffee?
Look at these examples with the main verb be. Notice that there i s no auxiliary:
subject main verb
I am    French.
You, we, they are    French. +
He, she, i t is    French.
I am not old.
You, we, they are not old. -He, she, i t is not old.
?
Am I    late?
Are you, we, they    late?
Is he, she, i t    late?
How do we use the Simple Present Tense?
We use the simple present tense when:
· the action is general
· the action happens all the time, or habitually, in the past, present and future
· the action is not only happening now
· the statement i s always true
John drives a taxi.
past present future
It i s John's j ob to drive a taxi . He does i t every day. Past, present and future.
Look at these examples:
· I live in New York.
· The Moon goes round the Earth.
· John drives a taxi .
· He does not drive a bus.
· We do not work at night.
· Do you pl ay football?
Note that with the verb to be, we can also use the simple present tense for situations that are not
general. We can use the simple present tense to talk about now. Look at these examples of the verb "to
be" in the simple present tense—some of them are general, some of them are now:
Am I right?
Tara is not at home.
You are happy.
past present future
The situation is now.
I am not fat.
Why are you so beautiful?
Ram is tall.
past present future
The situation is general . Past, present and future.
This pages hows the use of the simple present
tense to talk about general events. But note
that there are some other uses for the simple
present tense, for example in conditional or if
sentences, or to talk about the future. You
will   learn about those later.

Tenses
The English Tense System
The links below are to lessons for each of the 12 basic
tenses. In each lesson we look at two aspects of the
tense:
· Structure: How do we make the tense?
· Use: When and why do we use the tense?
Some lessons look at additional aspects, and most of
them finish with a quiz to check your understanding.
Present Tense
I do do, I do
Present Continuous Tense
I am doing, I am doing tomorrow
Present Perfect Tense
I have done
Present Perfect Continuous Tense
I have been doing
Past Tense
I did do, I did
Past Continuous Tense
I was doing
Past Perfect Tense
I had done
Past Perfect Continuous Tense
I had been doing
Future Tense
I will do
Future Continuous Tense
I will   be doing
Future Perfect Tense
I will   have done
Future Perfect Continuous Tense
I will   have been doing
Many English learners worry too much about
tense. If   you stopped 100 native English
speakers in the street and asked them about
tense, one of them might give you an
intelligent answer—if you were lucky. The
other 99 would know little about terms like
"past perfect" or "present continuous". And
they would know nothing about aspect, voice
or mood. But they can all speak fluent
English and communicate effectively. Of
course, for ESL it helps to know about
tenses, but don't become obsessed with them.
Be like those native speakers! Speak
naturally!

Check the souund of these words in the dictionary.
1. Breath/Breathe in deeply and then out again.
2. Suits were usually made of wool cloth/clothe.
3. I really loath/loathe the fashion of the 1980s.
4. The medicine soothes/sooths the pain of the inflammation.
5. The baby‟s teeth/teethe are coming through.
Homographs
Some examples of homographs:
to lead /lɪːd/    lead    /led/
to read /rɪːd/   read    /red/
to live    /lɪv/    live    /lɑɪv/
The sound may also change according to the where the stress is on the word:
to record /rɪˈkɔːd/ record    /ˈrekɔːd/
to present /prɪˈzent/ present /ˈpreznt/

-ed suffix
The morpheme -ed of the past tense (or past participle) is also pronounced in three
different ways depending on the preceding consonant:
ɪd     after t and d
painted    /peɪntɪd/ founded    /fɑʊndɪd/
wanted    /wɒntɪd/ rounded    /rɑʊndɪd/
t     after unvoiced consonants: /f/ /k/ /p/ /s/ tʃ   /ʃ
clapped    /klæpt/ brushed    /brʌʃt/
laughed /lɑːft/    wished    /wɪʃt/
d      in other cases
earned    /ɜːnd/    carried    /kær ɪd/
changed /tʃeɪndʒd/ harmed    /hɑːmd/
13
Exercise 17 Pronounce the past form of these regular verbs paying attention to the –ed
suffix.
1. study _____
2. judge _____
3. listen _____
4. miss _____
5. work _____
6. answer _____
7. test _____
8. invent _____
9. research _____
10. enjoy _____

Suffixes
-s suffix
The morpheme -s of the 3rd person singular   (he works), of the noun plural (books), of
the genitive (John‟s) and of the contraction of is or has (he‟s) is pronounced in three
different ways depending on the sound of the preceding consonant:
ɪz   after sibilant consonants: s   ʃ   tʃ   dʒ
slices    /slɑɪsɪz/    brushes /brʌʃɪz/
churches /tʃɜːtʃɪz/     wages    /weɪdʒɪz/
s     after unvoiced consonants: /f/ /k/ /p/ /t/
packs    /pæks/    rates    /reɪts/
laughs    /lɑːfs/    taps    /tæps/
12
z     in other cases
boys    /bɔɪz/    girls    /gɜːlz/
clothes    /kləʊðz/     John‟s    /dʒɒnz/
Some unvoiced sounds, θ and f , become voiced when the -s suffix is added.
Compare:
bath    /bɑːθ/ baths      /bɑːðz/
knife    /nɑɪf/    knives      /nɑɪvz/
Exercise 16 Write the sound /s/, /z/ or /ɪz/ next to the following words.
1. judges    _____
2. lives    _____
3. plates    _____
4. classes    _____
5. breathes    _____
6. watches    _____
7. attends    _____
8. tapes    _____
9. books    _____
10. wives    _____

Exercise 15 Circle the word that is pronounced differently from the other three words.
1. accident    access      accommodate    accept
2. sheep    beer      field        people
3. angry    jungle      English      spring
4. shout    now      round       mould
5. cheese    chip      machine      attach
6. signature   foreign    Gnostic      tongue
7. suit    fruit      cruise       biscuit
8. though    rough     enough      tough
9. floor    poor      flood        door
10. author    caught    laughter      daughter

UNIT 2 ENGLISH SPELLING AND SOUNDS
English spelling is a particular obstacle to non-native speakers. This is due to the fact
that during the course of its history it has been influenced by numerous languages,
especially by German, Latin, French and the Scandinavian languages. Thus, for example,
the sound /ʃ/ is to be found in the following letter combinations: shut, champagne,
nation, expansion, conscience, issue, and sugar.
Sometimes words do not sound alike despite their similar spellings (homographs): bow -/bəʊ/ and /bɑʊ/, close - /kləʊz/ and /kləʊs/, live - /lɪv/ and /lɑɪv/. Other words sound
alike, but are spelled differently (homophones): aren‟t / aunt - /ɑːnt/, bare / bear -/beə/, and seen / scene - /sɪːn/.
10
It was already noted over 400 years ago that English used more letters than necessary to
spell many of its words, and during the 17th century numerous redundant letters were
removed, the emergent standard spellings tending to prefer one of the shorter forms
among the alternatives previously in use. For example, in the 16th century the word bit
was sometimes spelt byte. Many words were reduced like byte by the loss of a silent final
-E, the replacement of Y by I, and the simplification of doubled consonants. But many
other words have kept unnecessary letters, for instance the B in debt , the E in have or the
P in receipt.
After the 17th century this process of simplification of English spelling slowed down,
thanks to the standardizing influence of printing and the spread of dictionaries. The
American lexicographer Noah Webster took the process of simplification a step further in
the early 19th century, and Americans today use some distinctive spellings of the type his
dictionary recommended, such as center, traveling, favor, defense, realize (Br.Eng. centre,
travelling, favour, defence, realise).
Difficult vowel combinations Practice saying the following words
u: /ʌ/ - bun, /ʊ/ - put, /ɪ/ - busy, /e/ - bury, /uː/ - rude, /juː/ - huge, /ə/ -focus, /ɜː/ - burn.
ea: /ɪː/ - beach, /e/ - bread, /eɪ/ - break, /eə/ - bear, /ɪə/ - dear.
au: /ɑː/ - aunt, /ɔː/ - author, /ɒ/ - because, /eɪ/ - gauge.
oo: /uː/ - too, /ʊ/ - look, /ʌ/ - flood, /əʊ/ - brooch, /ɔː/ - floor.
ei: /eɪ/ - eight, /ɪː/ - receive, /ɪ/ - counterfeit, /e/ - leisure, /ɑɪ/ - height
ui: /uː/ - fruit, /ɪ/ - build, /wɪː/ - suite, /ɑɪ/ - guide.
ou: /ɑʊ/ - out, /əʊ/ - soul, /ʌ/ - touch, /ʊ/ - could, /uː/ - you, /ɔː/ - pour.
oa: /əʊ/ - road, /ɔː/ - broad.
ow: /ɑʊ/ - now, /əʊ/ - know, /ɒ/ - knowledge.
ough: /əʊ/ - though, /uː/ - through, /ɔː/ - bought, /ɑʊ/ - drought, /ə/ - borough,
/ɒf/ - cough, /ʌf/ - enough.
augh: /ɔː/ - taught, /ɑːf/ - laugh.
11
Difficult consonant combinations Practice saying the following words
ch: /k/ - character, /tʃ/ - choice, /ʃ/ - chef, /Ǿ/ - yacht.
cc: /ks/ - success, /k/ - account, /tʃ/ - cappuccino.
gn: /n/ - sign, /gn/ - recognise.
ng: /ŋ/ - sing, /ŋg/ - finger, /ndʒ/ - danger.

LEARNING ORAL ENGLISH

/s/
Apart from the letter „S‟, the /s/ sound can be represented by a number of consonant
combinations, which differ in pronunciation from the Italian: psyche, cellar, science,
listen.
Exercise 13 Tick the words that contain the /s/ sound.
1. song    5. face    9. issue    13. disciple
2. Islam    6. city    10. months    14. sugar
3. vision    7. message    11. castle    15. mix
4. science    8. houses    12. fascism    16. psychology
9
Exercise 14 Underline the word that the transcription represents.
1. bɔːn    burn    born
2. θɪŋ    thing    thin
3. fɪːlɪŋz    fillings feelings
4. vɑɪn    vine    wine
5. meɪdʒə    major    mayor
6. ræm    rum    ram
7. wɜːd    word    worried
8. fəget    forget    forged
9. ɑɪs      eyes    ice
10. huːz    whose    house
Tongue Twisters Quickly say the following sentences.
1. She sells sea shells on the sea shore.
2. Thirty-three thrilling thespians thought throughout Thursday.
3. I wish to wash my Irish wristwatch.
4. In Hertford, Hereford and Hampshire, hurricanes hardly ever happen.
5. A skunk sat on a stump.

/w/This sound tends to be pronounced by Italian speakers as /v/.
Exercise 10   The teacher will read out the following sentences. Underline the alternative
that you hear.
1. There was only a little vine / wine left.
2. Where is the vest / west?
3. I saw a long whale / veil in the distance.
4. What was under the wheel / veal?
5. Her poetry has become worse / verse.
8
/dʒ/
When written with a „J‟, Italian speakers tend to pronounce this sound as /j/. The letter
„G‟ can also produce this sound: general, storage, as can the combination
–dge and –age: edge, storage.
Exercise 11 Tick the words that contain the /dʒ/ sound.
1. gin      5. yam    9. jet      13. damage
2. large      6. soldier    10. gear      14. mayor
3. goat      7. guilty      11. just      15. collage
4. injury      8. gum      12. get      16. college
/h/
This sound tends to be omitted by Italian speakers. However, the h is not pronounced in
such words as hour, honour, heir and honest, in some words and place names: exhibit,
Totten(h)am, or in rapid speech: Tell (h)im we‟ll be late.
Exercise 12 The teacher will read out sentences. Tick the word that you hear.
1. ill      hill
2. eye    high
3. art      heart
4. air      hair
5. ear      hear
6. old      hold
7. heir    hair
8. all      hall
9. eight    hate
10. edge    hedge

Tick the words that contain the /ɜː/ sound.
1. Thursday    5. Tuesday    9. birthday    13. ball
2. does      6. work      10. turn      14. hurt
3. skirt      7. ear      11. bun      15. early
4. short      8. nurse      12. weren‟t    16. ward

Exercise 5
1. We went to the theatre yesterday.
2. He can speak Russian and German.
3. Susan is famous for her Christmas cake.
4. The pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary are difficult.
5. We could ask them if they have reached a decision.
6. A man and a woman were waiting at the station.
7. They‟re going to the mountains on Saturday.
8. The private sector is all economic activity other than government.
9. Where are the spoons and forks?
10. There were seven or eight hundred people present at the conference.

Some difficult sounds for Italian speakers of English
/ə/
This is the most frequent vowel sound in spoken English, which can also represent
several letters or syllables. It can be found in unstressed function words such as a, am,
an, but, can, of; in prefixes and suffixes such as in-, suc-, to-, ad-, -ible, -able, -ment; in words such as according, lemon, minute, purpose, second etc.

Exercise 3 Complete the transcriptions with one of the following
/eɪ/ /ɑɪ/ /ɔɪ/ /əʊ/ /ɑʊ/ /ɪə/ /eə/ /ʊə/
1. make /m _ _ k/
2. sure /ʃ _ _/
3. bear /b _ _/
4. island /- - lənd/
5. employ /ɪmpl _ _/
6. hear /h _ _/
7. town /t _ _ n/
8. home /h _ _ m/
9. sight /s _ _ t/
10. know /n _ _ /
dipthongs:

Answers
1 =/eɪ/
2= /ɔɪ/
3= /eə/
4= /ɑɪ/
5= /ɔɪ/
6= /ɪə/
7= /ɑʊ/
8= /əʊ/
9=/ɑɪ/
10= /əʊ/

Exercise 2 Check to the following sounds in your dictionary
1. /æ/    /ʌ/
2. /æ/    /e/
3. /ʊ/    /ɒ/
4. /ɪː/    /ɪ/
5. /ɜː/    /ɔː/
6. /eɪ/    /ɑɪ/
7. /ʊ/    /uː/
8. /ɪə/    /eə/
9. /θ/    /ð/
10.   /ʃ/    /ʒ/
.

Exercise 1 Match the phonetic transcriptions with the words.
1. /ʃʌt/      a. later
2. /hɑːt/      b. joke
3. /θɪŋk/      c. heart
4. /wɜːk/      d. there
5. /leɪtə/      e. doubt
6. /bɔːt/      f. work
7. /puːl/      g. shut
8. /dɑʊt/      h. think
9. /dʒəʊk/      i. pool
10. /ðeə/      j. bought
answers
1=>g
2=>c
3=>h
4=>f
5=>a
6=>j
7=>i
8=>e
9=>b
10=>d

International phonetic alphabet symbols
Vowels
/ɪ/    pin, English, business
/e/    bed, head, bury, exit
/æ/    cat, bag, apple, black
/ə/    the, a, woman, banana
/ʊ/    look, put, could, cushion
/ɒ/    clock, what, because
/ʌ/    cut, come, mother
/ɜː/    girl, burn, word, heard
/ɑː/    car, art, heart, half
/ɔː/    or, board, door, small
/ɪː/    sea, bee, people, receive
/uː/    too, blue, fruit, fool
Dipthongs
/eɪ/    take, pay, wait, ballet
/ɑɪ/    five, sigh, height, buy
/ɔɪ/    noise, boy, lawyer
/əʊ/    no, road, sew, broken
/ɑʊ/    round, renown, doubt
/ɪə/    here, deer, dear, fierce
/eə/    care, air, mayor, prayer
/ʊə/    poor, insure, tour, moor
Consonants
/p/    play, stop, speak, power
/b/    bad, baby, big, object
/t/    ten, later, little, pot
/d/    day, advice, bed
/k/    character, quick, taxi
/g/    got, exam, ignore, finger
/f/    food, laugh, telephone
/v/    vain, over, Stephen
/θ/    thin, earth, method, both
/ð/    they, father, breathe, with
/s/    small, since, scene, psalm
/z/    zoo, goes, xenophobe
/ʃ/    shell, nation, machine
/ʒ/    genre, measure, vision
/h/    hot, hair, whole, whose
/m/    moon, lamp, lamb
/n/    can, snow, pneumonia
/ŋ/    string, singer, tongue
/tʃ/    chair, match, future
/dʒ/    just, general, age, soldier
/l/    look, small, bottle, isle
/r/    real, train, wrong, write
/j/     yes, Europe, university
/w/    window, twin, quick, why

Grammar

Conjunctions exercise

Rewrite using modal auxiliary verbs

General grammar exercise

Intransitive verbs used as transitive verbs

Make questions

Conjunctions or prepositions

Mistakes with prepositions

Adjective clauses used as co-ordinate clauses

When to use some and any

Common similes

Simple Past Tense

Present Perfect Continuous Tense

Present Perfect Tense

Present Continuous Tense

Simple Present Tense

Exercise 18

ENGLISH SPELLING AND SOUNDS

LEARNING ORAL ENGLISH

Oral English

Exercise

Underline the /ə/ sound in the following sentences.

Some difficult sounds for Italian speakers of English /ə/

dipthongs

Exercise 1 Match the phonetic transcriptions with the words.

International phonetic alphabet symbols

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